Joseph Brain & Mind 1 -1- ORIGINS AND THE NEUROANATOMY OF MIND Overview: The Brain, the Mind, Evolution, Creation Science, Astro-biology, Metamorphosis, and the Origin of Life The human brain is a heterogeneous composite of functionally specialized areas, structures, and subdivisions, many of which maintain multiple topological maps of the body or visual, auditory, somesthetic, olfactory, attentional, or personal space (Barbur et al., 1993; Graziano, et al., 1999; Joseph, 1986a, 1999a; Kaas, 1993; Lin et al., 1994; Passingham, 1997; Zeki, 1997). Consciousness, personal identity, and the capacity to experience love and hate, is made possible through these semi-independent mosaics of the mind, all of which perform unique and overlapping interactive functions such as those involving language, learning, and memory (e.g. Buchel, et al., 1999; Brewer et al., 1998; Frost, 1999; Gloor, 1997; Ojemann, 1991; Pujol et al., 1999; Wagner et al., 1998), including the maintenance and preservation of life. The brain and the mind are synonymous and are hierarchically, vertically, and horizontally organized, with different regions engaging in both parallel and localized processing. There are tissues of the mind which mediate language and complex cognition, such as the neocortex and lobes of the brain (Buchel et al., 1998; Evers et al., 1999; Frost et al., 1999; Price, 1997; Pujol, et al., 1999), those aspects associated with sex, love and war, such as the limbic system (Joseph, 1992a, 1994, 1998a, 1999b), and those areas which respond reflexively and completely unconsciously, laboring to maintain homeostasis, and the rhythmics of waking, sleeping, dreaming, and of the heart, the respiratory systems, and the vegetative mind. These latter unconscious activities are associated with the functional integrity of the brainstem (Aminoff, 1996; Blessing, 1997; Joseph, 1999c; Steriade & McCarley, 1990; Vertes, 1990), i.e., the medulla, pons, and midbrain, and to a much lesser extent, the adjacent diencephalon, i.e. the thalamus and hypothalamus. The mind and brain are also functionally lateralized, with specific interactive subareas in the left hemisphere mediating the linguistic, temporal, sequential, arithmetical, and rhythmical aspects of consciousness and verbal thought (Buchel et al., 1998; Evers et al., 1999; Frost et al., 1999; Peterson et al., 1988, 1990; Price, 1997; Pujol, et al., 1999). It is the right half of the brain which subserves and provides the foundations for an interactive non-verbal awareness encompassing music, emotion, the body, prosodic language, and spatial thought (Joseph, 1982, 1988ab, 1999a; Parsons & Fox, 1997; Price, 1997; Ross, 1993). Thus, the cerebrum and psyche are organized such that several semi-independent mental system coexist, literally one on top of the other, side by side, distributed and localized, with the limbic system and brainstem providing much of the "food for thought" that is received by the neocortex and reflected upon by the conscious mind. [-INSERT FIGURE 1 ABOUT HERE-] THE BRAINSTEM The brainstem is exceedingly ancient and complex structure (Aitkin, 1986; Vertes, 1990), and is concerned with sensory reception, arousal, and reflexive movements of the body, including stereotyped and routine motor acts such as yawning, opening and closing the mouth, wiping the face, or lifting the legs, taking steps, walking or running (Aminoff, 1996; Blessing, 1997; Cohen, et al. 1988; Klemm, 1990; Skinner & Garcia-Rill, 1990). Although capable of learning, forming simple memories, and displaying synaptic plasticity (Jones & Pons, 1998; Isukahara, 1985; Moore & Aitkin, 1975; Moore & Irvine, 1981), this portion of the brain cannot think, reason, or feel love or sorrow (Joseph, 1999c). The brainstem is both diffusely organized and functionally specialized. When specific brainstem nuclei (and associated neural networks) are stimulated, sucking, chewing, swallowing, swimming, stepping, walking, and running movements can be induced (Barman, 1990; Cohen, et al. 1988; Klemm, 1990; Mogenson, 1990; Steriade & McCarley, 1990; Skinner & Garcia-Rill, 1990; Vertes, 1990). However, these movements are hierarchically organized with those requiring the least amount of organizational or conscious control being localized near the medulla-spinal border. It is noteworthy, however, that this areas also contains neurons which when stimulated can trigger female sexual posturing (Benson, 1988; Rose, 1990); i.e. the lordosis (or "doggie") position. These latter neurons are interconnected with the amygdala and ventromedial hypothalamus--nuclei which are also involved in sexual activities. At the level of the spinal cord, movement programs are exceedingly simplified and usually consist of only fragments of the entire motor display. As one ascends from the spinal cord to the medulla, then the pons, and finally the midbrain, the degree, extent, and nature of these various motor programs and behaviors becomes increasingly complex. For example, when the most caudal regions of the medulla are stimulated stepping motions can be induced, whereas stimulation of the midbrain can initiate eye movements, head turning, controlled walking, running (Cowie & Robinson 1994; Cowie et al. 1994; Skinner & Garcia-Rill, 1990) and vocalization--which is produced by the periaqueductal gray (Jurgens, 1994; Larson et al. 1994; Zhang et al. 1994). [-INSERT FIGURE 2 ABOUT HERE-] The periaqueductal gray coordinates the activity of the laryngeal, oral-facial, and principal and accessory muscles of respiration and inspiration (Zhang et al. 1994) and receives extensive input from the amygdala, the anterior cingulate, and the left and right frontal lobes--structures which are all implicated in vocalization, and/or speech and language. However, it is the coordinated activity of the periaqueductal gray which enables an individual to laugh, cry, or howl, even if the rest of the brain (excepting the brainstem) were dead The brainstem is devoid of cognitive activity as it is designed to react immediately and reflexively to sensory stimuli. Consider, for example, infants born with only a brainstem, i.e. anencephalics, who are completely devoid of any semblance of conscious or cognitive activity; and the same is true of adults who suffer a brainstem-forebrain transection. Although they live and breath, these latter unfortunate souls are essentially forebrain dead. The brainstem, although almost wholly unconscious, maintains consciousness and promotes cognitive activity by feeding the forebrain with activating neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine (NE) Serotonin (5HT), and dopamine (DA) and by controlling arousal through the reticular activating system (Blessing, 1997; Steriade & McCarley, 1990; Usher et al., 1999). Because of its importance in these and other life-preserving functions, the stereotypical consequences of brainstem injury, therefore, are prolonged unconscious and death. THE CEREBELLUM The cerebellum sits atop the brainstem and accounts for approximately 25% of the brain. It communicates with almost all regions of the neuroaxis, with the single exception of the striatum, and has been implicated in cognitive, emotional, sensory, motor and speech processing (Llinas & Sotelo, 1992; Schmahmann, 1997; Silveri et al. 1994; Thach, 1997; van Dongen et al. 1994; Wallesch & Horn 1990) . The cerebellum has been shown to display neuroplasticity (Nimura et al., 1999) and learning and memory (Fiez et al. 1992; Lavond et al. 1990; Molinari, et al., 1997; Thompson et al., 1997) and may well serve as an integrative interface for cognition, emotion, motor functioning and memory. [-INSERT FIGURE 3 ABOUT HERE-] The cerebellum is typically thought of as a motor center. However, electrical stimulation or damage to this structure can trigger rage reactions (Bharos, et al. 1981), and hyperactivity (Carpenter, 1959), including "mania" (Cutting, 1976). Abnormalities in the cerebellum have also been implicated in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia and autism (Bauman & Kemper, 1985; Courchesne & Plante, 1996; Gaffeny, et al. 1987; Heath, 1977; Heath, et al. 1979, 1982; Taylor 1991; Weinberger et al. 1979, 1980). Although the notion that abnormal rearing conditions may contribute to autistic and schizophrenic behavior is no longer in fashion, it is noteworthy that Heath (1972) found that monkeys reared under deprived conditions displayed abnormal electrophysiological activity in the cerebellum (dentate gyrus) as well as the septal nuclei. As detailed in chapter 28, these animals also displayed autistic behavior (Harlow & Harlow, 1965a,b). These findings are significant, for the cerebellum is an outgrowth of the vestibular system, and insufficient social-emotional or physical stimulation would also result in insufficient vestibular activation. The cerebellum consists of a number of structures and distinct neural circuits associated with specific fiber systems, including climbing, parallel and mossy fibers. It also appears that different regions are concerned with different functions that also have a major motor component. These functions include speech (Silveri et al. 1994; van Dongen et al. 1994; Wallesch & Horn 1990), and visual processing, including the visual guidance of movement (Bloedel 1992; Stein & Glickstein 1992). The cerebellum is tonically active, and presumably exerts a tonic and stabilizing influence on motor function (Llinas, 1981). Moreover, by altering its activity (e.g., Bloedel, et al., 1985; Thach, 1978), it can apparently coordinate, smooth, fine tune, as well as exert a timing influence on motor movements (Ivry, 1997; Llinas, 1981; Llinas & Sotelo, 1992). In fact, some cerebellar neurons become activated just thinking about making a movement (e.g., Dacety et al. 1990). Indeed, the cerebellum is associated not just with motor functioning, but classical conditioning and the learning of new motor programs (Llinas & Sotelo, 1992; Schmahmann, 1997). For example, it has been suggested the initial acquisition of skilled movements, such as playing a guitar, requires neocortical and conscious control over motor functioning, with the cerebellum playing at best a minimal supplementary role. However, "practice makes perfect" and presumably the cerebellum immediately begins to increase its participation and slowly begins to learn the necessary movements. For example, the cerebellum becomes activated during initial learning stages (Watanabe, 1984) and as learning progress, the cerebellum may begin to acquire control over the task and may begin to associate the task and specific movements with specific changing contexts so that each context automatically triggers the movement (Thach, 1997). With time and practice, the cerebellum may slowly assume control over the associated movements, which become "automatic" and can then perform these movements with little or no help from the cerebrum which becomes free to do and think about other things. Conversely, lesions abolish the acquisition and retention of conditioned responses (Lavond et al. 1990), and compound movements are more severely effected that simple movements. These and other findings suggests that the cerebellum may act to integrate and combine different movements, and movement sequences. Moreover, it has been proposed that climbing fibers may act to learn the task, mossy fibers may learn the "context," whereas parallel fibers integrate the context with the actual motor activity, and even correcting errors (Thach, 1997). THE DIENCAPHALON With the notable exception of olfaction (Gloor, 1997), all sensory input is first projected to the brainstem (Blessing, 1997; Vertes, 1990) and is then relayed to the immediately adjacent thalamus and hypothalamus--collectively referred to as the diencephalon ("between brain"). The diencephalon represents that rudimentary aspect of the unconscious mind that generates vague sensory impressions and diffuse emotions (Dreifuss, Murphy, & Gloor, 1968; Joseph, 1992a; Olds, 1956), including pain (the thalamus), and hunger, thirst, sexual arousal, or depression and rage (the hypothalamus). Like the brainstem, the hypothalamic portion of the diencephalon does not think or reason, but reflexively reacts--often in response to amygdala input, in which case it remain active for an extensive period of time (Dreifuss, et al., 1968; Rolls 1992). Nor are the emotions generated by this portion of the brain well differentiated. The hypothalamus may feel pleasure in general, or depression in general, or enraged in general with no differentiation, specificity, or concern for consequences other than the satisfaction of internal needs. By contrast, considerable information and cognitive pre-processing occurs within the various subdivisions of the thalamus, such as the the lateral and medial geniculate nucleus (LGN & MGN), the pulvinar, the motor and subthalamus (M/ST), and the dorsal medial nucleus (DMN). These structures play a significant role in processing auditory (MGM) and visual input (LGN), the guidance of motor functions (M/ST), and the regulation of attention and arousal (DMN). For example, the LGN receives visual input directly from the retina, and then transfers this information to the visual cortex (Casagrande & Joseph, 1978). The MGN receives auditory input from the midbrain and transfer this information to the auditory cortex (Amaral et al., 1983; Pandya & Yeterian, 1985). The dorsal medial and reticular thalamus exert regulatory influences over neocortical, striatal, and limbic system arousal and influence memory and attentional functioning (Joseph, 1999a; Skinner & Yingling, 1977; Yingling & Skinner, 1977). [-INSERT FIGURES 4 & 5 ABOUT HERE-] In addition, the subthalamus, which is intimately associated with the amygdala, the motor thalamus and the striatum, participates in the organization and expression of gross purposeful affective-motoric behaviors (Crossman, Sambrook, & Mitchell, 1987; Parent & Hazrati, 1995). Thus the subthalamus (and striatum with which it is also intimately associated) can trigger running, kicking, punching, flailing, and a variety of oral and emotional facial expressions, or conversely "freezing" in reaction to extreme fear. The striatum and subthalamus act as an emotional-motor interface which enables humans (and other animals) to express their emotions through body language and facial expression. Because of their role in guiding and controlling motor activities, if the subthalamus or motor thalamus is injured, patients may demonstrate a variety of hypo- or hyperactive motor abnormalities including rigidity, catatonia, and catalepsy, or conversely tremor and uncontrolled ballistic movements such as kicking, flailing, and so on (Crossman, et al., 1987; Parent & Hazrati, 1995; Royce, 1987). Although capable of experiencing pain, the mental and perceptual functioning of the thalamus occurs outside of conscious awareness. Rather, the functioning of these various thalamic subdivisions occurs in a mental realm best described as the "preconscious;" acting to provide the conscious mind with its sensory and perceptual contents by relaying data from the brainstem to the neocortex as well as to the limbic system. THE LIMBIC SYSTEM The principle structures of the limbic system include the amygdala, hippocampus, septal nuclei, anterior cingulate gyrus, as well as the hypothalamus (Joseph, 1992a, 1994, 1998a; LeDoux, 1996; Gloor, 1997; MacLean, 1990). These structures represent a truly interactive system and are intimately interconnected by a number of interactive pathways, e.g. the stria terminalis, medial forebrain bundle, fornix-fimbria, amygdalofugal, and so on. Collectively, the limbic system subserves all aspects of emotional, social, motivational and sexual functioning (Gloor, 1997; Halgren, 1992; Leutmezer et al., 1999; MacLean, 1990; Olds, 1956; Olds & Forbes, 1981), as well as learning and memory (Eichenbaum et al. 1994; Mishkin, 1990; Nunn et al., 1999; Squire, 1992), and homeostatic, endocrine, and hormonal activities (Smith et al. 1990), including the stress response (Fink, 1999; Joseph, 1998b, 1999b,d), and even the craving for pleasure-inducing drugs (Childress, et al., 1999). With the exception of the hippocampus, electrical stimulation of each of these structures has induced feelings of extreme pleasure, and extremely negative emotions, such as fear, anger, and rage (Gloor, 1997; Heath, 1974; Olds, 1956; Olds & Forbes, 1981). Activation of these structures, the amygdala and hypothalamus in particular, have also induced fighting, fleeing, and sexual behavior--affective motor actions made possible through the basal ganglia (e.g., corpus and limbic striatum) and the brainstem; structures which are partly under the control of the amygdala. [-INSERT FIGURE 6 ABOUT HERE-] The limbic system, the amygdala and cingulate in particular, also play significant and important roles in the evolution, development and expression of language and emotional speech (Joseph, 1982, 1992a, 1999b; MacLean, 1990). It is these early maturing structures which provide the neurological foundations (that is, in association with the periaqueductal gray) for the development of infant speech and what has been termed, "limbic language" (Joseph, 1982, Jurgens, 1990). LIMBIC SYSTEM SEXUALITY The limbic system is sexually differentiated such that there is a male, female, and even homosexual limbic system. In humans, sexual differentiation is initiated around 3 months after conception, and is triggered by the presence or absence of testosterone which also effects cellular development. For example, glia cells, which manufacture certain neurotransmitters and which nourish and even guide immature migrating immature neuroblasts to their terminal substrate, develop unique male-specific patterns before birth. Hence, testosterone effects neural migration and thus the organization and neural growth of the limbic system as well as the neocortex and spinal cord. For example, the presence of fetal testosterone promotes the development of spinal motor neurons which project to the phallus. Moreover, the total brain volume of the human male is about 7% larger than that of the female, and much of this differences is due to the greater volume of white matter in the male cerebrum (glia and axons), the only exceptions being the human hippocampus which is larger in the female, and the amygdala which is 16% larger in the male in total volume (Filipek, et al., 1994). The female and male primate amygdala are sexually differentiated and have their own unique patterns of dendritic growth and organization (Nishizuka & Arai, 1981). As noted, in humans the male amygdala is 16% larger, and in male rats the medial amygdala is 65% larger than the female amygdala (Breedlove & Cooke, 1999), and the male amygdala grows or shrinks in the presence of testosterone--findings which may be related to sex differences in sexuality and aggression. Moreover, female amygdala neurons are smaller and more numerous, and densely packed than those of the male (Bubenik & Brown, 1973; Nishizuka & Arai, 1981), and smaller, densely packed neurons fire more easily and frequently than larger ones--which may be related to the fact that females are more emotional and more easily frightened than males (chapters 7,13,15), as the amygdala is a principle structure involved in evoking feelings of fear (Davis et al., 1997; Gloor, 1997; LeDoux, 1996). Dendritic spine density in the female rat hippocampus also increases and decreases by as much as 30% during each estrus cycle (Woolley, et al., 1990) which in turn may influence memory. Indeed, in humans it has been shown that estrogen replacement therapy slows memory loss in women. In fact, it has been reported that women who take this hormone have a 54% lower chance of developing Alzheimers (see chapter 16). On the other hand, dendritic spine density can rapidly change within a few seconds (regardless of gender), as these spines can rapidly grow or disappear in response to varying experiences or lack thereof. In addition, the human anterior commissure which connects the right and left amygdala/temporal lobe is sexually differentiated (Allen et al. 1989), as is primate/mammalian hypothalamus (Bleier et al. 1982; Dorner, 1976; Gorski et al. 1978; Rainbow et al. 1982; Raisman & Field, 1971, 1973)--with which the amygdala is intimately interconnected. That is, the anterior commissure is thicker in women which, coupled with her more densely packed amygdala neurons (Bubenik & Brown, 1973; Nishizuka & Arai, 1981) may account for her greater social-emotional sensitivity (see chapters 8, 10, 13, 15). Thus, different structures of the limbic system have sex specific patterns of neuronal and dendritic organization and perform different functions depending on if one is a man or a woman. [-INSERT FIGURE 7 ABOUT HERE-] For example, chemical and electrical stimulation of the sexually dimorphic preoptic and ventromedial hypothalamic nuclei triggers and/or increases sexual behavior in males and females (with each taking their respective sexual positions), and significantly increases the frequency of erections, copulations and ejaculations, as well as pelvic thrusting followed by an explosive discharge of semen even in the absence of a mate (Hart et al., 1985; Lisk, 1967, 1971; Maclean, 1973). In female primates, activation of these areas can also trigger maternal behavior (Numan, 1985). Conversely, lesions to the preoptic and posterior hypothalamus eliminates male sexual behavior and results in gonadal atrophy. Likewise, activation of the sexually dimorphic amygdala--which is larger in males (Filipek, et al., 1994)-- can produce penile erection and clitoral engorgement (Kling and Brothers, 1992; MacLean, 1990; Robinson and Mishkin, 1968; Stoffels et al., 1980), and trigger sexual feelings (Bancaud et al., 1970; Remillard et al., 1983), extreme pleasure (Olds and Forbes, 1981), memories of sexual intercourse (Gloor, 1986), as well as ovulation, uterine contractions, lactogenetic responses, and orgasm (Backman and Rossel, 1984; Currier, Little, Suess and Andy, 1971; Freemon and Nevis,1969; Warneke, 1976; Remillard et al., 1983; Shealy and Peel, 1957). Moreover, these sexually dimorphic structures also play different roles among females depending on if a woman is sexually receptive, pregnant, or lactating. For example, in a lactating female, the sexually dimorphic supraoptic and paraventricular hypothalamic nuclei (which projects to the posterior lobe of the pituitary) may trigger the secretion of oxytocin--a chemical which can trigger uterine contractions as well as milk production and which makes nursing a pleasurable experience. In fact, dendritic spine density of ventromedial hypothalamic neurons varies across the estrus cycle (Frankfurt et al., 1990) and thus presumably during pregnancy and while nursing. Hence, the core of our personal and emotional being, the limbic system, is sexually differentiated. There is a male vs a female limbic system, and even a "homosexual" limbic system (Levay, 1991; Swaab, 1990); structures which are organized in unique sex specific dendritic and neuronal patterns and which govern sex-specific behaviors. Coupled with evolutionary (Joseph, 1999e) and early environmental influences (Joseph, 1979; Joseph & Gallagher, 1980), the sex differences in these and other structures account for many of the stereotypical sex differences in thinking, sexual orientation, aggression, and cognitive functioning (Barnett & Meck, 1990; Beatty, 1992; Dawson et al. 1975; Harris, 1978; Joseph, et al. 1978; Stewart et al. 1975) which characterized the mind of woman and man, including their sexual behaviors. LIMBIC SYSTEM MEMORY Although the hippocampus is not associated with emotion per se, stimulation of this structure and/or the amgydala, can trigger recent and even long forgotten memories, especially those that the patient feels to be exceedingly emotionally meaningful or personally profound, such as traumas or the recollection of the first time they had sexual intercourse (Gloor, 1997; Halgren, 1992; Penfield & Perot, 1963). The hippocampus, in conjunction with the amygdala (e.g. Chapman et al., 1990; Gloor, 1997; Mishkin, 1990) has been implicated in the regulation of neocortical arousal, and long term memory storage and recall including the ability to remember words, conversations, and visualize one's self and the surrounding environment (Eichenbaum, et al., 1994; Nishitani, et al.,, 1999; Nunn et al., 1999; Penfield & Milner, 1958; Scoville & Milner, 1957; Squire, 1992; Xu et al., 1998). [-INSERT FIGURE 8 ABOUT HERE-] The hippocampus and amygdala displays synaptic plasticity and dendritic proliferation, and will grow additional dendritic spines in response to new learning (Engbert & Bonhoeffer, 1999), and interacts with the amygdala in the storage of the cognitive and emotional attributes of memory (Gloor, 1997; Halgren, 1992), including dreaming and what has been referred to as the primary process (Joseph, 1992a). As noted above, dendritic spines can grow and change position in response to new experiences or lack therefore, thus forming innumerable new synapses and creating vast neural networks supporting complex memories. THE CINGULATE & ENTORHINAL CORTEX The different structures of the limbic system subserve different as well as overlapping functions ranging from primitive emotions (e.g., hypothalamus) to the spiritually profound (e.g., the amygdala). From an evolutionary perspective, some structures are exceedingly ancient and have a pedigree extending almost a half billion years backwards in time, e.g. the amygdala/striatal/hippocampus, hypothalamus, brainstem, Others of more recent vintage, such as the cingulate gyrus, may have first begun to evolve around 200 million years ago (MacLean, 1990). This more recent evolutionary origin is also reflected by those functional capacities it mediates, including complex cognitive-affective activities such as maternal-infant behavior and emotional speech (Devinsky et al., 1995; Joseph, 1999b; MacLean, 1990; Slotnick, 1967; Smith, 1945, Stamm, 1955; Ward, 1948). That the cingulate has evolved more recently is also evident structurally. For example, with the exception of the cingulate, the structures of the limbic system are comprised of allocortex. Allocortex has three layers with pyramidal cells sandwiched between layers I and III. The cingulate consists of mesocortex (also referred to as "paleocortex" and "transitional cortex"), which consists of five layers. Although the entorhinal cortex --the "gateway to the hippocampus-- may have begun to evolve at the same time as the cingulate, unlike this latter structure, the entorhinal cortex appears to have continued to "evolve" and add new layers. The entorhinal cortex, which receives and relays information to and from the neocortex and hippocampus, consists of between 7 and 8 layers (Braak & Braak, 1992; Ramon y Cajal, 1902/1955; Rose, 1926). This seven to eight layer organization may well partly explain the unique importance of the entorhinal cortex in complex cognitive processing, for it receives input from the hippocampus and all neocortical association areas information which it apparently integrates, and in conjunction with the amygdala and in particular the hippocampus (which it partly coats), stores in memory (Gloor, 1997; Squire, 1992). The entrohinal cortex, which partly surrounds the hippocampus and is interconnected with the amygdala, appears to be a supra-modal memory center. THE LIMBIC AND CORPUS STRIATUM Within 50 million years of the close of the Cambrian "Explosion" (500 million years ago), cartilaginous sharks began to swim and patrol the primeval seas. Sharks are considered a "living fossil" and dissection of the shark brain reveals a brainstem, diencephalon, and a forebrain consisting of a dorsal/ventral amygdala-striatal mass with a primordial hippocampal-striatum centered at its dorsal core. Together the amygdala, striatum, and hippocampus, formed the forebrain, the dorsal pallium (Gloor, 1997; Haberly 1990; Herrick, 1925; Stephan & Andy, 1977; Ulinksi, 1990). Although the recipient of visual input, transferred from the brainstem, the primordial amydala-striatal-hippocampus, was dominated by the olfactory lobe--a dominance which was exaggerated further when animals left the sea and began to wonder upon dry shores. With the evolution of amphibians and reptiles, the forebrain expanded and the amygdala, striatum, and hippocampus began to differentiate, and were pushed apart (Gloor, 1997; Haberly 1990; Herrick, 1925; Nieuwenhuys & Meek, 1990ab; Smeet, 1990; Stephan & Andy, 1977; Ulinksi, 1990). Nevertheless, the amygdala remains intimately associated with the striatum, which in turn responds to amygdala concerns. [-INSERT FIGURES 9 & 10 ABOUT HERE-] In the human brain, the striatum is located anterior to the thalamus and is a major component of the basal ganglia. Considered broadly, the basal ganglia consists of the subthalamic nucleus, portions of the midbrain, the limbic striatum, the amygdala, and the globus pallidus and putamen (the lenticular nucleus) and the caudate nucleus (Alexander & Crutcher, 1990; Crutcher & Alexander, 1990; Mink & Thach, 1991; Parent & Hazrati 1995). The putamen and the caudate are referred to as the corpus striatum, with the head of the caudate extending deep into the frontal lobe and its tail merging with the amygdala. Beneath the corpus striatum is the limbic striatum (or extended amygdala) which is comprised of the substantia innominata, the nucleus accumbens, and the olfactory tubercle. The limbic and corpus striatum serve, in part, as the motor-component of the limbic system, and receive input directly from the amygdala. Hence, the striatum reacts to certain types of visual and olfactory stimuli which are deemed by the amygdala to be emotionally significant, with gross motor movements, e.g., kicking, hitting, running, flailing. Because of its importance in movement, if the corpus striatum were injured, the patient may become stiff and rigid, such as occurs with Parkinson's disease, or they may involuntarily twitch, jerk, kick, and flail about with their limbs--depending on which aspects of the basal ganglia are injured (see chapter 16). Moreover, patients with abnormalities and reduced functional activity of the striatum may develop obsessive compulsive motor movements, often involving the hands, or increasingly lose inhibitory control over motor functioning such that may display signs of mania. In fact, children with hyperactivity and impulse control disorder, have been shown to display reduced striatal activity, which is increased when treated with Ritalin. However, in "normal" children, Ritalin decreases striatal activity. Although the dorsal and ventral aspects of the striatum play roles in motor functioning, the limbic striatum is more concerned with emotion and memory. Hence, damage to this structure is associated with loss of memory including Alzheimer's disease. THE NEOCORTEX Perception, cognition, fine-motor expression, and computational processing, is made possible by neurons, the majority of which are pyramidal neurons. Most pyramidal neurons are located in the neocortical mantle of the lobes of the brain, which gives this outercoating its grayish appearance. Over 90% of the gray matter is located in the neocortex. The neocortex ("new cortex") likely first began to evolve between 100 million to 150 million years ago (MacLean, 1990). Neocortex has also been referred to as isocortex and is organized into vertical columns and horizontal layers (Mountcastle, 1997). Each layer and each column contains cells which perform specific functions (Ferster et al., 1996; Hubel & Wiesel, 1968, 1974; Mountcastle, 1997; Peters & Jones, 1984) and which receive or transmit information to or from adjacent cells or distant regions of the brain (Kaas & Krubitzer 1991; Peters & Jones, 1984; Sereno et al. 1995). For example, each column contains neurons that may respond to the same frequency of sound, or to tactile input to the thumb, or to a visual input on the same region of the retina (Hubel & Wiesel, 1968, 1974; Mountcastle, 1997), depending on if the column is located in the temporal, parietal, or occipital lobe. Those neurons which project to neurons in the next column or to those neurons in an upper or lower layer, are referred to as local circuit neurons. Those which project from the neocortex to the brainstem, or from one half of the brain to the other, are referred to as long distance neurons (Peters & Jones, 1984). Neocortical Layers Classically, the neocortex is said to consist of six to seven layers when in fact it consists of numerous layers which vary depending on brain area (Braak & Braak, 1992; Peters & Jones, 1984; Ramon y Cajal, 1902/1955; Rose, 1926). For example, the deepest layer, neocortical layer VI, consists of two distinct layers (VIa and VIb). In the occipital lobe, three additional layers (i.e. sublayers) can be distinguished within layer IV (which also receives considerable thalamic input and is very thick). By contrast, within the motor areas of the frontal lobe, layer IV is exceedingly thin (as there is comparatively minimal thalamic input), whereas layer V is exceedingly thick, It is layer V of the frontal motor areas which contribute the bulk of axons that form the descending corticbulbar, corticopontine, and corticorubral brainstem pathways which establish contact with cranial nerve and sensory and spinal motor neurons (Brodal, 1981; Kuypers & Catsman-Berrevoets, 1984). Likewise in the temporal neocortex layer V is relatively thick as are layers I and VI (since much of the temporal lobe is association and assimilation cortex). As noted, the entorhinal cortex, the "gate way to the hippocampus" and which is located along the medial surface of the temporal lobe, consists of between 7 and 8 layers (Braak & Braak, 1992; Ramon y Cajal, 1902/1955; Rose, 1926). Hence, the thickness, layering, and composition of the human neocortex varies from lobe to lobe and actually consists of from 7 to 9 (or more) layers rather than 6. For our purposes (and throughout this book) we will described the neocortex as having 7 layers. [-INSERT FIGURE 11 ABOUT HERE-] Specifically, layer I is referred to as the Molecular Layer and consists of Golgi II cells and horizonal cells. Layer I receives innumerable dendrites from local circuit neurons located in the lower layers. Layer I, however, actually contains few neurons and is mostly made up of tangentially running axons and horizontally running birfucating apical dendrites received from the pyramidal cells of the lower layers (Peters & Jones, 1984). Layer II is referred to as the External Granular Layer, and consists of densely packed small pyramidal, stellate, and granule cells. Most of the neurons in layer II are local circuit neurons which project to adjacent columns and adjacent layers. [-INSERT FIGURE 12 ABOUT HERE-] Layer III is the Pyramidal Layer and consists of medium pyramidal cells which project axons to distant areas of the neocortex. Hence, the neurons of layer III can be considered long distance neurons. Layer IV, the Internal Granular Layer, has a granular appearance and consists of small pyramidal, granule, and stellate (starshaped) cells and receives massive axonal projections from the thalamus. These neurons are predominantly local circuit, and project to adjacent columns and layers. That is, upon receiving and analyzing thalamic input, the neurons of layer IV transfer this data to adjacent neurons for additional analysis. Because the primary, secondary and association sensory areas receive considerable thalamic input, layer IV is relatively thick--except in the motor cortex. Layer V is the Ganglionic Layer and consists of large and medium size pyramidal cells, including, in primary motor cortex (Brodmann's area 4) the giant cells of Betz. The pyramidal neurons of layer V are long distance neurons, and give rise to descending axons which form the corticospinal, pyramidal, corticobulbar, corticopontine, and corticorubral brainstem pathways which establish contact with cranial nerve and sensory and spinal motor neurons (Brodal, 1981; Kuypers & Catsman-Berrevoets, 1984). It is these "pyramidal" and cortico-spinal neurons which make purposeful, fine motor movement possible. Approximately 31% of the corticospinal tract arises from the pyramidal cells located in the primary motor areas 4, with the remainder arising from the frontal motor associations areas 6, 8, and the primary somesthetic areas 3,1,2, with a scattering of fibers being contributed by the occipital and temporal lobe, as well as limbic system structures. [-INSERT FIGURE 13 ABOUT HERE-] Layer VIa is the Multiform Layer and contains pyramidal, fusiform, and spindle shaped cells, whereas Layer VIb consists of predominantly of spindle shaped cells. These are predominantly local circuit neurons, and receive considerable input from the brainstem. The Cytoarchitextural Neuronal, & Chemical Organization of the Neocortex Korbinian Brodmann detailed the regional variation in the cytoarchitectural organization of the cortex, and conducted detailed comparative studies of numerous species, each of which displays common as well as varying patterns of cytoarchitexture and gyral folding. Based on these cytoarchitextural differences and commonalities, Brodmann divided the cortex into distinct regions and created cytoarchitextural maps of the brains of a variety of species, including humans. For examples, Brodmann's area 17 is synonymous with the primary visual cortex, whereas Brodmann's areas 3,1,2, denote and identify the primary somesthetic receiving areas. [-INSERT FIGURE 14 ABOUT HERE-] However, although these area differ in regard to organization, what they share in common is a preponderance of pyramidal cells. As noted, pyramidal cells are also the largest and are more numerous than any other neocortical neuron (Peters & Jones, 1984). Pyramidal neurons account for up to 3/4 of all neocortical cells. Pyramidal neurons also serve as both local-circuit and long-distance neurons and generally receive two types of synaptic contacts referred to as Gray types I and II which differ in synaptic morphology and (respectively) excitatory vs inhibitory influences (Peters & Jones, 1984). However, almost all pyramidal cell are excitatory and use glutamate and aspartic acid as transmitters (Tsmoto, 1990). Pyramidal cells can also be classified as Golgi I and II cells. However, of all neocortical neurons, only 10% are Golgi type I neurons, the main source of long-distance (excitatory) axons, the majority are interneurons, i.e. local circuit neurons which in turn provide almost 90% of cortical axons and dendrites. Approximately 95% of Golgi type I long distance axons interconnect distant regions within the same hemisphere and only about 5% cross the corpus callosum, the fiber pathways which link the right and left hemishere (Peters & Jones, 1984). [-INSERT FIGURES 15-18 ABOUT HERE-] Non-pyramidal cells also function as local-circuit (inter-) neurons, and connect adjacent cells, layers, and cell columns, and display the greatest degree of morphological diversity. These include stellate cells, bipolar cells, chandelier cells, and basket cells. Many of these cells are inhibitory and may use GABA as a neurotransmitter, though the majority in fact appear to be excitory and use glutamate (Peters & Jones, 1984). Presumably, non-pyramidal, local circuit (interneurons) act to fine tune information processing via inhibitory filtering and selective excitatory transmission. They also serve to integrate and assimilate information received in adjacent regions of the neocortex. In addition to glutmate and GABA, neocortical neurons contain and respond to peptides, including substance P, corticotropin releasing factor, and opiates. The peptide containing neurons tend to congregate in layers II, III, and IV (Jones & Hendry, 1986). [-INSERT FIGURE 19-21 ABOUT HERE-] Information processing throughout the brain is also dependent on glia and non-neuroglia elements. Glia serve a supportive and nurturing role, and may also act to store information. During embryonic brain development, radial glia fibers act to guide migrating neurons to the neocortex, and some glia also form myeline sheaths which surround axons, thus serving as a form of insulation which promotes information transmission. Glia and non-neuroglia elements make up almost 70% of the volume of the neocortex. Of the remainder, 22% consists of axons and dendrites, with the body (soma) of the neuron comprising only 8% (Peters & Jones, 1984). THE CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS (EMOTIONAL) MIND The human cerebrum can be subdivided into frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes, as well as the limbic system, striatum and diencephalon. The brainstem and cerebellum are not considered part of the cerebrum, but instead comprise the "hind brain." The cerebrum constitutes nearly 90% of the volume of the brain, and is 50 times larger than the brainstem and 8 times larger than the cerebellum (Filipek, et al., 1994). More than 60% of the cerebrum consists of gray matter, and less than 40% consists of white matter. The amygdala, basal ganglia, diencephalon and hippocampus, make up less than 3% of the central gray, whereas more than 90% of the gray matter is found within the neocortex, "a proportion that highlights the central and dominant role that the neocortex plays in virtually all fully-integrated functions of the central nervous system (Caviness et al., 1997, p. 5). As will be detailed in chapters 2 and 13, the neocortex is clearly associated with what is classically considered the conscious mind--a consciousness that knows it is conscious, and which includes the capacity to think and reason, to abstract and consciously reflect upon the self and the world, as well as the ability speak grammatically and read, write, compose, and recite the music of poetry. Consciousness, however, is modular, with different regions of the neocortex engaging in both localized as well as parallel processing. For example, as based on functional imaging, it has been demonstrated that language processing, and silent mental activities, such as thinking, or generating inner speech, activates the neocortex of the frontal lobes (Paulesu, et al., 1993; Peterson et al., 1988; Demonet, et al., 1994). Reading and language processing also activates the neocortex of the temporal lobes (Bookheimer, et al., 1995; Bottini, et al., 1994; Fletcher et al., 1995; Howard et al., 199; Shaywitz, et al., 1995; Warburton, et al., 1996) and the left inferior parietal lobule (Bookheimer, et al., 1995; Price, 1997). Moreover, during language processing there is activity in the brainstem, the cerebellum, and various limbic structures, especially the mesocortical anterior cingulate gyrus. [-INSERT FIGURE 22 ABOUT HERE-] When considered very broadly, it could be argued that the neocortex is associated with the conscious, rational mind, and conscious-awareness that we identify as distinctly human--a consciousness that knows it is conscious (Joseph, 1982, 1988a). By contrast, it has been argued (Joseph, 1992ab) that the limbic system represents that aspect of the mind classically referred to as the "unconscious" (Freud, 1900) and the "collective unconscious" (Jung, 1945). And just as it has been theorized that the unconscious continually supplies the conscious mind with all manner of impulses, imagery, and ideas (e.g. Freud, 1900), it is now apparent that the limbic system does likewise, and that those aspects of consciousness associated with the neocortex are often driven by these unconscious limbic mental realms and associated impulses. As noted, stimulation of limbic structures, such as the amygdala and hypothalamus can provoke intense feelings of pleasure, sexual behavior, as well as rage and fear--emotions which can completely hijack and overwhelm the conscious mind. Fear, in fact is the most common emotional reaction elicited from direct amygdala stimulation (Chapman, 1960; Davis et al., 1997; Gloor, 1997; Halgren, 1992; Rosen & Schulkin, 1998), and when frightened, the stereotypical response is to run, flee, cower or hide. Abnormal activity in the amygdala or overlying temporal lobe can evoke overwhelming, terrifying feelings of death-like "nightmarish" fear, and may even produce suicidal ideas. Moreover, unlike hypothalamic on/off emotions, amygdala-fear reactions can last from from minutes to hours after the fear inducing stimulation is withdrawn. The contents of consciousness, that is, the contents of the neocortex, are initially derived from the limbic system and thalamus, which provide sensory, perceptual, and emotional input. Structures such as the amygdala and thalamus project to almost every region of the neocortex, and if denied limbic and thalamic input, consciousness would be extinguished and the ability to become conscious of the external or internal world would be denied. Consider, for example, our perfumed world of smell. Although the olfactory system projects directly to the amygdala (Stephan & Andy, 1977), and although the amygdala may become active in response to any number of fragrances, human subjects will deny detecting any odor until these olfactory messages are transmitted and received in the neocortex of the orbital frontal lobe (Gloor, 1997). If the orbital frontal neocortex is destroyed, so too is conscious recognition of smell (Zatarre et al., 1992). Likewise, if provided LSD, primates display considerable activity within the amgydala and temporal lobe (Chapman & Walter, 1965; Chapman et al. 1963). However, subjects who have undergone surgery which disconnects the neocortex of the temporal lobe from the amygdala, will cease to hallucinate (Baldwin et al. 1959). In fact, if the right and left amygdala are destroyed, the neocortex will be denied all related social-emotional and affective input and the patient will no longer be able to recognize or feel affection for family, friends or loved one's (Lilly et al., 1983; Marlowe et al., 1975; Terzian & Ore, 1955). Although the ability to speak, think, reason, and read and write is preserved, the personal-affective contents of consciousness will have been erased. Humans and animals subject to bilateral amygdala destruction avoid all contact with others, preferring to sit alone in isolation, and will withdraw if approached. Similarly, primates who are subject to bilateral amygdala removal lose all interest in social activity and persistently attempt to avoid contact with others. If approached they withdraw. If followed they flee. Even maternal behavior is severely affected following bilateral amygdala destruction. According to Kling (1972) mothers will bite off fingers or toes, break arms or legs, and behave as if their "infant were a strange object to be mouthed, bitten and tossed around as though it were a rubber ball". However, although "conscious" the limbic system does not appear capable of self-consciousness or self-reflection. The brain of the shark, amphibian, and reptile, consist of limbic and brainstem tissue, and there is no evidence of self-consciousness, or thinking or thought among these creatures. Rather, they reflexively react. Of course, the limbic system has also continued to evolve with the evolution of mammals and then humans--and in part, the neocortex is the consequence of the evolutionary expansion. Hence, whereas the neocortical aspects of the conscious human mind are concerned with the more rational and linguistic aspects of experience, the limbic aspects of the human mind are associated with the emotional and even the hallucinatory aspects of experience, including those features associated with what has been described as the primary process. By contrast, the brainstem, controlling waking and sleeping, as well as the rhythmic aspects of vegetative functioning, could be identified with the most primitive regions of the psyche as its functional activity is for the most part, completely beyond conscious scrutiny or control. THE FRONTAL, PARIETAL, TEMPORAL AND OCCIPITAL LOBES The rational, logical, linguistic, and self-reflective aspects of consciousness, therefore, are associated with the neocortical shroud which envelops the brain. Neocortical consciousness, however, also appears to be somewhat modular with the different lobes of the brain (and the right vs left hemisphere) subserving different aspects of consciousness and perceptual and personality functioning. As is common knowledge, the six to seven layered neocortical shroud which encompasses and envelopes the old brain, can be divided into the frontal lobes which comprise the anterior half of the human telencephalon, and the parietal, occipital and temporal lobes which are located in the posterior half of the cerebrum, each of which contributes differently to the mosaic of mind including personality. THE FRONTAL LOBES The frontal lobes has been referred to as the "senior executive" of the brain and personality (Fuster 1997; Joseph 1986a, 1999a; Koechlin et al., 1999; Milner & Petrides 1984; Passingham 1993; Selemon et al. 1995; Shallice & Burgess 1991; Stuss 1992) and is associated with goal formation, long term planning skills, the ability to consider multiple alternatives and consequences simultaneously, as well as memory search and retrieval. Because it is interlocked with the thalamus, limbic system, brainstem, and the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, the frontal lobes are provided multiple streams of input and are constantly informed as to the processing which takes place in other regions of the brain (Cavada 1984; Fuster 1997; Jones and Powell 1970; Goldman-Rakic 1995, 1996; Passingham, 1993, 1997; Pandya & Yeterian 1990; Petrides & Pandya 1988). Moreover, it can act to inhibit, suppress, or enhance perceptual and information processing, including learning and memory through inhibitory and excitatory influences directed to the thalamus, brainstem, or the different lobes of the brain (Joseph, 1999a). [-INSERT FIGURE 23 ABOUT HERE-] For example, the frontal lobes interact directly with the temporal lobe (which contains the hippocampus and amygdala) in order to ensure that certain percepts are attended to, committed to memory, and later remembered (Dolan et al., 1997; Kapur et al., 1995; Passingham, 1997; Posner & Raichle, 1994; Tulving et al., 1994). As demonstrated through functional imaging, it has been determined that the ability to remember a visual or a verbal experience, is directly correlated with activation of the right or left frontal lobe and the temporal lobes during that experience (Brewer et al., 1998; Wagner et al., 1998). According to Wagner et al., (1998, p. 1190), "what makes a verbal experience memorable partially depends on the extent to which left prefrontal and medial temporal regions are engaged during the experience." The degree of this activity, therefore, can be used to predict which experiences will be "later remembered well, remembered less well, or forgotten" (Brewer et al., 1998, p. 1185). Thus the frontal lobes appear to be acting directly on and in concert with the amygdala and hippocampus in regarding to memory functioning. [-INSERT FIGURE 24 ABOUT HERE-] In addition to influencing arousal, memory, and perceptual actiivty, the right and left frontal motor areas control fine motor activity, including the emotional and non-emotional aspects of expressive speech (Joseph, 1982, 1988a, 1999a,e; Ross, 1993). Both the right and left frontal lobes in fact become functionally active during language tasks (Peterson et al., 1988), and receive auditory-linguistic input that has been organized and transmitted from the posterior speech zones, the inferior parietal lobule, and in the left hemisphere, Wernicke's area in the superior temporal lobe. Damage to the left frontal lobe can thus result in expressive aphasia, whereas right frontal injury may disturb the melody and prosodic aspects of speech. Because the frontal lobes serve the "senior executive" of the brain and personality, if the frontal lobes are injured, all aspects of personality functioning may become severely abnormal (Fuster, 1997; Joseph, 1986a, 1988a, 1999a; Stuss & Benson, 1984). Patients may become lethargic, apathetic, or conversely, disinhibited, impulsive, aggressively sexual, and display what has been classically referred to as the frontal lobe personality. One individual who was described as quite gentle and sensitive prior to his injury, subsequently raped and brutalized several women. Similar behavior has been described following frontal lobotomy. As stated by Freeman and Watts (1943, p. 805): "Sometimes the wife has to put up with some exaggerated attention on the part of her husband, even at inconvenient times and under circumstances which she may find embarrassing. Refusal, however, has led to one savage beating that we know of, and to an additional separation or two" (p. 805). Curiously, in these situations Freeman and Watts (1943, p. 805) have suggested that "spirited physical self-defense is probably the best strategy of the woman. Her husband may have regressed to the cave-man level, and she owes it to him to be responsive at the cave-women level. It may not be agreeable at first, but she will soon find it exhilarating if unconventional." However, since the frontal lobes serve so many functions, patients may display different symptoms depending on if the lesion impacts the right, left, orbital, or medial aspects of the frontal lobes (Joseph, 1999a). Oatients may display severe apathy, depression, schizophrenia or aphasic speech (left frontal), mania, disinhibition, and confabulation (right frontal), obsessive compulsions (orbital-striatal) or catatonia (medial frontal). For example, a soldier who received a gunshot wound that passed completely through the frontal lobes, "layed in a catatonic-like stupor for two months, always upon one side with slightly flexed arms and legs, never changing his uncomfortable position; if he were rolled into some other position, he would quickly get back into his former one. He did not obey commands, but if food and drink were given to him, he swallowed them naturally. He was incontinent, made no complaints, gazed steadily forward and showed no interest in anything. He could not be persuaded to talk, and then suddenly he would answer quite correctly about his personal affairs and go back to mutism. From time to time he showed a peculiar explosive laugh, especially when his untidiness was mentioned". Incredibly, the patient "was eventually returned to active duty" (Freeman & Watts 1942, pp 46-47). THE TEMPORAL LOBES Whereas the frontal lobe act to regulate personality and emotion, such as through inhibitory projections it maintains with the limbic system, the temporal lobes are the source of one's personal subjective and emotional identity (Gloor, 1997) and appears to be the main storage site for spatial, verbal (Brewer et al., 1998; Squire, 1992; Wagner et al., 1998), personal and even sexual memories (e.g., Gloor, 1997; Halgren, 1992). The temporal lobes, in fact, contain the core structures of the limbic system, the amygdala and hippocampus, and of all brain regions, only stimulation or activation of the temporal lobe or the underlying limbic structures, gives rise to personalized, subjective, emotional, and sexual experiences (Gloor, 1997; Halgren, 1992; Penfield & Perot, 1963). Stimulation of the temporal lobe can give rise to profound auditory or visual hallucinations, including the sensation or having left the body, as well as spiritual and religious feelings such as having the "truth" revealed and of receiving knowledge regarding the meaning of life and death. In addition to memory and personal and spiritual identity, the temporal lobe are responsive to complex auditory and visual stimuli (Binder et al., 1994; Gross & Graziano 1995; Nakamura et al. 1994; Nelken et al., 1999; Nishimura et al., 1999; Price, 1997; Rolls 1992; Tovee et al. 1994), and subserve the ability to comprehend complex and emotional speech. Functional imaging studies have repeatedly demonstrated activity in the superior and middle temporal lobe when engaged in language tasks (Bookheimer, et al., 1995; Bottini, et al., 1994; Fletcher et al., 1995; Howard et al., 1996; Shaywitz, et al., 1995; Warburton, et al., 1996). The temporal lobes, however, are functionally lateralized. Specifically, whereas the right temporal lobe subserves the ability to perceive and comprehend emotional, animal, environmental, and musical sounds (Joseph, 1988a; Parsons & Fox, 1997; Ross, 1993) the left temporal lobe, including Wernicke's area is directly responsible for the capacity to comprehend complex human speech. The left superior temporal lobe, i.e. the planum temporal, which contains the auditory area, is in fact significantly larger than its counterpart on the right. [-INSERT FIGURE 25 ABOUT HERE-] It has been determined, as demonstrated through lesion and physiological studies, that Wernicke's area (in conjunction with the inferior parietal lobule) acts to organize and separate incoming sounds into a temporal and interrelated series so as to extract linguistic meaning via the perception of the resulting sequences. When damaged a spoken sentence such as the "big black dog" might be perceived as "the klabgigdod." Patients develop what has been referred to as Wernicke's receptive aphasia. Presumably this disorder is due in part to an impaired capacity to discern the individual units of speech and their temporal order. That is, sounds must be separated into discrete interrelated linear units or they will be perceived as a meaningless blur. Patients with damage to Wernicke's area are nevertheless, still capable of talking due to the preservation of Broca's area which continues to receive lingusitic-related ideational material via the arcuate fasciculus pathway which originate in the temporal lobe and passes through the inferior parietal lobule--a structure which acts as a phonological storehouse that becomes activated during short-term verbal memory and word retrieval (Demonet, et al., 1994; Paulesu, et al., 1993; Price, 1997). However, because Wernicke's area is injured, speech output also becomes abnormal, a condition referred to as fluent aphasia. Broca's area keeps talking, but what is says is nonsense. [-INSERT FIGURE 26 ABOUT HERE-] The speech output of a patient with "fluent aphasia" in many respects resembles the acutely psychotic speech of patients suffering from certain subtypes of schizophrenia. In fact, certain subtypes of schizophrenia have been repeatedly associated with abnormalities and irritative lesion involving the left temporal lobe (DeLisi et al. 1991; Dauphinais et al. 1990; Flor-Henry 1983; Perez et al. 1985; Rossi et al. 1990, 1991; Sherwin 1981). Conversely, given the role of the left temporal lobe in language, patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and who show signs of left temporal lobe dysfunction, also tend to demonstrate aphasic abnormalities in their thought and speech (Chaika, 1982; Flor-Henry, 1983; Hoffman, 1986; Hoffman, Stopek & Andreasen, 1986; Rutter, 1979). The right temporal lobe also participates in language--as demonstrated through functional imaging (Bottini et al., 1994; Price et al., 1996; Shaywitz, et al., 1995)--and is especially responsive to sounds conveying emotion, melody, prosody, including those made by animals and those arising from the natural environment such as wind and rain (e.g. Fujii et al., 1990; Joseph, 1982, 1988a; Ross, 1993; Schnider et al. 1994; Zatorre & Halpen, 1993). It is the right temporal lobe which enables an individual to determine if someone is speaking sincerely, or with anger, happiness, and so on, whereas the left temporal lobe listens to the words being said. Hence, if the right temporal lobe is severely injured, patients may suffer from a non-verbal social-emotional auditory agnosia (Joseph, 1982, 1988a, Ross, 1993; Schnider et al. 1994), also referred to as phonagnosia (van Lancker, et al., 1988), in which case they can no longer perceive social-emotional vocal nuances and may misperceive what others are saying or implying, and may be no longer capable of hearing "sincerity" or mirth or even "love" in which case they may become paranoid. Hence, although the ability to comprehend the non-emotional, denotative aspects of language is preserved (Fujii et al., 1990), patients with right superior temporal injuries may lose the capability to correctly discern environmental sounds (e.g. birds singing, doors closing, keys jangling), emotional-prosodic speech, as well as music (Nielsen, 1946; Ross, 1993; Samson & Zattore, 1988; Schnider et al. 1994; Spreen et al. 1965; Zatorre & Hapern, 1993). The loss of the ability to appreciate music is due to the right temporal lobe being dominant for the perception of melodic and musical stimuli. For example, while listening to or performing scales, activity increases in the left temporal lobe, whereas when listening to Bach (the third movement of Bach's Italian concerto), the right temporal lobe becomes highly active (Parsons & Fox, 1997). Likewise, Evers and colleagues (1999) in evaluating cerebral blood velocity, found a right hemisphere increase in blood flow when listening to harmony (but not rhythm), among non-musicians in general, and especially among females. In fact, right temporal lobe activity increased when pianists were playing from memory Parsons & Fox, 1997). Conversely, right temporal injuries can disrupt the ability to remember musical tunes or to create musical imagery (Zatorre & Halpen, 1993). Unfortunately, individuals with right temporal injuries not only lose the ability to appreciate music, but may misperceive and fail to comprehend a variety of paralinguistic social-emotional messages. This includes difficulty correctly identifying the voices of loved ones or friends, or discerning what others may be implying, or in appreciating emotional and contextual cues, including variables such as sincerity or mirthful intonation. In consequence, a patient may complain that his wife no longer loves him, and that he knows this from the sound of her voice. Or, because of difficulty discerning nuances such as humor and friendliness the patient may even become paranoid or delusional as they realize that friends and loved ones sound different, and may entertain delusions that they've been replaced by imposters. The temporal lobes, therefore, are crucially important in memory, language, social emotional relations, maintaining personal identity and the ability to comprehend speech. If injured, patients may suffer memory loss, and/or language-related ideational activity may become abnormal, thus producing a formal thought disorder or delusions or paranoia, and personality functioning may become fractured and thus schizophrenic. THE PARIETAL LOBES The parietal lobes maintain the body image and also consists of cells which are responsive to a variety of divergent stimuli, including movement, hand position, objects within grasping distance, audition, eye movement, pain, heat, cold, as well as complex and motivationally significant visual stimuli (Aoki et al., 1999; Cohen et al. 1994; Deibert et al., 1999; Dong et al. 1994; Kaas, 1993; Lam, et al., 1999; Remy et al., 1999). The parietal lobes assimilate this information in order to coordinate reaching and the movements of the body in space, particularly the hand. The parietal lobe is in fact considered a "lobe of the hand." Hence, because of its importance in controlling hand movement, one consequence of parietal lobe injury may be apraxia--an inability to perform coordinated step-wise and sequential movements of the hands (Barrett et al., 1998; Buxbaum, et al., 1998; De Renzi and Lucchetti, 1988; Heilman et al., 1982; Kimura, 1993; Strub and Geschwind, 1983). [-INSERT FIGURE 27 ABOUT HERE-] Patients with apraxia demonstrate gross inaccuracies as well as clumsiness when making reaching movements or when attempting to pick up small objects in visual space. They may also be impaired in their ability to acquire or perform tasks involving sequential changes in the hand or upper musculature including well learned, skilled, and even stereotyped motor tasks such as lighting a cigarette, using a key, or making a cup of coffee. That is, they may perform the various steps in the wrong order; e.g., pretending to stir the coffee, then pretending to pour it. In addition, patients may no longer be able to perform constructional tasks, such as drawing or copying or performing puzzles or block designs, a condition referred to as constructional apraxia. They may leave out parts, grossly distort the figure, or even fail to draw half the object--particularly with right parietal injuries. Apraxic disorders are most common with injuries involving the inferior parietal lobule (IPL), a structure that engages in the motor programming of hand movements, such as those involved in drawing, constructing, building, and which require sequential and orderly movements (De Renzi and Lucchetti, 1988; Heilman et al., 1982; Kimura, 1993; Strub and Geschwind, 1983). As noted above, the IPL (the angular and supramarginal gyrus) is also coextensive with Wernickes area and acts to assimilate auditory, visual, and tactile impressions, and provide names for these associated assimilation (which also makes reading and writing possible). Once this is accomplished, the IPL then injects this material, temporal sequential fashion, into the stream of language and thought all of which is transmitted to Broca's area and which is then expressed as grammatical speech (Joseph, 1982, 1986a, 1999e,f; Joseph et al., 1984). This is not merely a hypothesis based on lesion studies, for as based on functional imaging, others have come to the same conclusion; i.e. the inferior parietal lobule acts as a phonological storehouse that becomes activated during short-term memory and word retrieval (Demonet, et al., 1994; Paulesu, et al., 1993; Price, 1997). For example, viewing words activates the left supramarginal gyrus (Bookheimer, et al., 1995; Vandenberghe, et al., 1996; , Menard, et al., 1996; Price, 1997) which also becomes active when performing syllable judgements (Price, 1997), and when reading (Bookheimer, et al., 1995; Menard, et al., 1996; Price, et al., 1996). Injuries to the IPL, therefore, can result in word finding difficulty (anomia) as well as a loss of the ability to read or write. The parietal lobes also subserve and maintain a unique aspect of one's personal identity, the body image (Joseph, 1986a, 1988a). The parietal lobe actually maintains multiple maps of the body (Kaas, 1993; Lin et al., 1994), and in this regard, it is responsible for the ability to remember and recognize the body as an extension of one's personal self--particularly the right parietal lobe which appears to maintain multiple maps of both halves of the body and a bilateral image of body-image visual space (Joseph, 1986a, 1988a). Presumably, it is because the body image is maintained in the parietal lobe, that individuals who have suffered amputations continue to experience a phantom limb. Although the body part has been eliminated, the neural representation for the body may remain intact. Because the parietal lobes maintain the body image, and as the entire body is multiply represented along the surface of the parietal lobes, massive injuries may result in a destruction of the body image. Memories of the body may be erased. As noted, the right parietal lobe maintains a bilateral body image, the left parietal lobe appears to maintain a memory of only half the body (Joseph, 1986a, 1988a). Inf the left parietal lobe is injured, the right parietal area may continue to monitor both halves of the body and both halves of visual space and the body image will remain intact. If the right parietal area is severely injured, the left half of the body image, and in fact all memories of the left half of the body and the left half of space, may be abolished; a condition referred to as unilateral neglect. Patients may dress or groom only the right half of their body, eat only off the right half of their plates, and fail to read the left half of sentences and words, and so on. The left parietal lobe, having a memory of only the right half of the body, is unable to recognize the left half of the body, and ignores it and denies its existence. [-INSERT FIGURE 28 ABOUT HERE-] Following a massive right parietal injury, and when confronted with their unused or immobile limbs patients may (at least initially) deny that it belongs to them and instead claim it must belong to the doctor or a patient in the next bed. For example, Gerstmann (1942) describes a patient with left-sided hemiplegia who "did not realized and on being questioned denied, that she was paralyzed on the left side of the body, did not recognize her left limbs as her own, ignored them as if they had not existed, and entertained confabulatory and delusional ideas in regard to her left extremities. She said another person was in bed with her, a little Negro girl, whose arm had slipped into the patient's sleeve" (p. 894). Another declared, (speaking of her left limbs), "That's an old man. He stays in bed all the time." With right parietal injuries coupled with unilateral neglect, patients may develop a dislike for their left limbs, try to throw them away, become agitated when they are referred to, entertain persecutory delusions regarding them, and even complain of of strange people sleeping in their beds due to their experience of bumping into their left limbs during the night (Bisiach & Berti, 1987; Critchley, 1953; Gerstmann, 1942). One patient complained that the person tried to push her out of the bed and then insisted that if it happened again she would sue the hospital. A female patient expressed not only anger but concern least her husband should find out; she was convinced it was a man in her bed. THE OCCIPITAL LOBES AND VISION The occipital lobes are the smallest lobes of the brain, but like other tissues of the mind, they process information from a number of modalities and contain neurons which respond to vestibular, acoustic, visual, visceral, and somesthetic input (Beckers & Zeki 1994; Ferster, et al., 1996; Horen et al., 1972; Pigarev 1994; Sereno et al. 1995; Zeki. 1997). Predominantly, however, the neocortex of the occipital lobes are the main receiving stations for visual stimuli transmitted from the retina to the thalamus (Barbur et al., 1993; Ferster et al., 1996). Simple and complex visual and central/foveal analysis is one of the main functions associated with the occipital lobe (Kaas & Krubitzer 1991; Sereno et al. 1995; Zeki, 1997). Specifically visual information is shunted from the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus to the primary visual receiving areas, striate cortex, area 17. Area 17 is referred to as "striate cortex" due to the striped appearance of layer IV, which is also directly innervated by the LGN. Layer IV is divided into three sublayers, with the middle layer containing a rather thick band of cortex, the band of Baillarger/Gennari, which is visible to the naked eye. Throughout the striate cortex neurons with similar receptive properties are stacked in columns, with all the neurons within one column responding, for example, to a certain visual orientation, and the cells in the next column to an orientation of a slightly different angle. Columns exist for color, location, movement, etc, with some columns responding to input from one eye, i.e. ocular (eye) dominance columns (Hubel & Wiesel, 1968, 1974). In general, a strict topographical relationship is maintained throughout the visual projection system and the visual cortex. Within the visual cortex immediately adjacent groups of neurons respond to visual information from neighboring regions within the retina (Kaas & Krubitzer 1991). Information received in the visual areas of the occipital lobe are then projected dorsally and ventrally to a variety of visual association areas, including the parietal and temporal lobes (Kaas & Krubitzer 1991; Nakamura et al. 1994; Sereno et al. 1995; Tovee et al. 1994). The dorsal stream of visual information flows to and is assimilated by the parietal lobes and is incorporated for the purposes of coordinating body and arm and leg movements in visual space. The parietal (dorsal) visual stream, therefore is most sensitive to objects in the periphery and lower visual fields (Motter & Mountcastle, 1981; Previc 1990); i.e. where the hands, feet, and ground are more likely to be viewed, and which thus enables the parietal lobe to guide and observe the hands in motion. [-INSERT FIGURE 29 ABOUT HERE-] The ventral visual stream flows from the occipital lobe to the inferior temporal lobe (ITL) where it is assimilated and also serves to activate feature detecting neurons which are sensitive to faces, objects, and other complex geometric stimuli. ITL neurons are sensitive to color, contrast, size, shape, orientation and are involved in the perception of three dimensional objects including specific shapes and forms including the human face (Eskander, et al. 1992; Gross & Graziano 1995; Gross, et al. 1972; Nakamura et al. 1994; Rolls, 1992; Sergent, et al.1990). In consequence, if injured, patients may suffer from an inability to recognize the faces of friends, loved ones, or pets (Braun et al. 1994; DeRenzi, 1986; Hanley et al. 1990; Hecaen & Angelergues, 1962; Landis et al., 1986; Levine, 1978); a condition referred to as prosopagnosia. Some patients may in fact be unable to recognize their own face in the mirror. The ventral occipital/temporal and the dorsal occipital/parietal visual areas also interact. For example, the ventral stream tends to focus on objects, faces, and so on, whereas the dorsal stream focuses on the hands in visual space. By interacting, the hands (parietal lobes) can be directed at specific objects identified and targeted by the temporal lobes, thus making coordinated hand-eye coordination possible. THE PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND ASSOCIATION AREAS The mosaic which can loosely be defined as consciousness, consists of multiple and parallel streams of information which are processed hierarchically, horizontally, vertically, and in modular fashion, with the brainstem, cerebellum, diencephalon, striatum, limbic system, and neocortex providing their own unique contributions. Conscious processing within the neocortex also occurs hierarchically, vertically, horizontally, as well as in parallel, even within the separate lobes of the brain. For example, in addition to their layered and columnar organization (Mountcastle, 1997), each of the four lobes of the brain consists of multiple cellular cytoarchitectonic subdivisions which perform unique and/or overlapping functions. For example, each lobe can be subdivided into primary, secondary, association, and assimilation areas. In general, information processing in the sensory receiving areas of the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes begins in the primary receiving area and then flows to the secondary receiving area and then to the association and multi-modal assimilation areas (Jones & Powell, 1970; Pandya & Yeterian, 1985). However, since the various subdivisions of the thalamus also project to the association areas, these tissues of the mind may receive specific types of visual, or auditory, or somesthetic input in advance of the primary areas (e.g. Zeki, 1997). [-INSERT FIGURES 30 & 31 ABOUT HERE-] In general, however, the flow is from primary to secondary to association area. For example, somatosensory information is first transmitted from the thalamus to the primary receiving areas of the parietal lobe (Brodmann's cytoarchitectonic areas 3,2,1). Here the individual sensory elements are analyzed and localized, e.g., cold, wet, hard, small, cubicle, palm. These sensory impressions are then shunted to the secondary areas (Brodmann's area 5) where these impressions may be combined, e.g. an ice cube held in the hand. These association areas are then transferred to the association-assimilation areas (Brodmann's areas 7, 39, 40), i.e. the inferior parietal lobule where they may then be visualized and even named. As per the motor areas, the opposite sequence of events takes places, with information flow beginning in the supplementary motor areas (SMA) prior to movement, and prior to activation of the secondary-association areas-- cytoarchitectonic areas 8,6 (Alexander & Crutcher, 1990; Crutcher & Alexander, 1990). The SMA may well initiate movements as this part of the brain has also been associated with what has been described as the "will." The secondary motor areas also become activated prior to movement and precedes cellular activation of the primary region (Alexander & Crutcher, 1990; Crutcher & Alexander, 1990; Weinrich et al. 1984). The premotor area appears to program various gross and fine motor activities, and becomes highly active during the learning of new motor programs (Porter 1990; Roland et al. 1981). Depending on the task, the primary motor areas may show low level activity prior to movement, but then becomes highly active during movement (Passingham, 1999)--a reflection of the fact that it supplies at least a third of the axonal trunk which makes up the corticospinal tract and whose cells maintain multiple musculature connections (via the spinal cord), as well as a one to one correspondence with specific muscles. In fact, direct electrical stimulation of the frontal primary motor cortex can induce twitching of the lips, flexion or extension of a single finger joint, protrusion of the tongue or elevation of the palate (Penfield & Boldrey, 1937; Penfield & Jasper, 1954; Penfield & Rasmussen, 1950; Rothwell et al. 1987), even though patients never claim to have willed these movements. Again, however, like the sensory areas, different motor subareas may become activated simultaneously, including the primary motor area which may become aroused prior to movement, only to increase in activity during specific movements (Passingham, 1993). [-INSERT FIGURE 32 ABOUT HERE-] Incoming and outgoing signals, therefore, are processed sequentially and in parallel. Beginning in the primary receiving areas these signals are relayed via a variety of separate branches to the secondary receiving areas and to association areas further downstream which are also simultaneously receiving thalamic input, processing this data, and then relaying this information back to the primary areas as well as laterally to other association areas (Kaas, 1993; Panya & Yeterian, 1985; Zeki, 1997) and back to the thalamus and to the frontal lobes. A similar stepwise and parallel process occurs; albeit in reverse, within the motor areas. That is, the primary motor areas in the frontal lobe may also become active prior to movements, but then increase their activity when the movement is actually performed (Passingham, 1997). Hence, these divergent cytoarchitectonic areas do not initially act in isolation as multiple areas in diverse regions of the brain become activated simultaneously and interact in regard to perceptual and motor functioning. That is, functions are localized as well as distributed throughout the neuroaxis with different regions making unique and overlapping contributions to the mosaic of the mind. THE RIGHT AND LEFT HEMISPHERE: FUNCTIONAL LATERALITY Those aspects of the mind that we associate with consciousness, language, and rational thought, are clearly maintained and propagated by the neocortical mantle of the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes and is divisible horizontally, vertically, hierarchically, cytoarchitecturally, and in accordance with the specialities of the different lobes of the brain including the limbic system and diencephalon. These different temporal and parallel streams of mental activity, including those generating by the structures of the limbic system, coalesce to create a conscious composite, a semi-integrated whole. The cerebrum including its striatal, limbic, and diencephalic components, is divisible not only horizontally, vertically, hierarchically, and in regard to its different lobes, but laterally. That is, two semi-independent streams of conscious awareness coexist literally side by side. Each half of the cerebrum, which includes neocortical, striatal, limbic and diencephalic structures, has its own memories, goals, personal identity, and social emotional orientation and capabilities or lack-thereof, as has now been repeatedly demonstrated following surgical sectioning of the thick interhemispheric axonal pathway, the corpus callosum (Akelaitis, 1945; Bogen, 1969, 1979; Joseph, 1986b, 1988b; Levy, 1974, 1983; Sperry, 1966, 1982). As described by Nobel Lauriate Roger Sperry (1966, p. 299), "Everything we have seen indicates that the surgery has left these people with two separate minds, that is, two separate spheres of consciousness. What is experienced in the right hemisphere seems to lie entirely outside the realm of awareness of the left hemisphere. This mental division has been demonstrated in regard to perception, cognition, volition, learning and memory." In consequence, following the surgical sectioning of the corpus callosum, each half of the brain and mind may act independently. For example, Akelaitis (1945, p. 597) describes patients with complete corpus callosotomies who experienced extreme difficulties making the two halves of their bodies and the two halves of their brains cooperate, as each half of the brain apparently had its own desires, goals and intentions. A recently divorced male "split-brain" patient noted that on several occasions while walking about town he found himself forced to go some distance in another direction by the left half of his body. Specifically, whereas the speaking, language dominant left half of his brain just wanted to go for a walk, the right half of his brain was trying to walk toward the new home of his former wife. A "split-brain" patient I examined, who had recently broken up with his girlfriend, indicated thumbs down and stated matter-of-factly that he had absolutely no desire to see her again. However, when his (non-verbal) right hemisphere was asked how it felt about the situation, and was told to give a thumbs up or down, it gave a thumbs up (with the left hand) when asked if he still wanted to see her. The right hemisphere of another split-brain patient apparently felt considerable animosity for his wife, for it slapped her several times----much to the embarrassment of his left (speaking) hemisphere. In another case, a patient's left hand attempted to choke the patient himself and had to be wrestled away. The right and left hemisphere of yet another split-brain patient enjoyed different television programs, different foods, and had different attitudes even about mundane activities such as going for a walk (Joseph, 1988b). For example, while watching television one afternoon, this patient "2-C" reported that to the dismay of his left (speaking) hemisphere, he was dragged from the couch by his left leg, and that the left half of his body dragged him to the TV where his left hand then changed channels even though he (or rather his left hemisphere) was enjoying the program. On another occasion, it simply turned the TV off and tried to leave the room. Once, after he had retrieved something from the refrigerator with his right hand, his left hand took the food, put it back on the shelf and retrieved a completely different item, "Even though that's not what I wanted to eat!" his left hemisphere complained. On at least one occasion, his left leg refused to continue "going for a walk" and would only allow him to return home. 2-C was so annoyed with the independent actions of the left half of his body that he frequently expressed hate for it, even striking it angrily with the right hand. Nevertheless, the right hemisphere knew exactly what it was doing, as was demonstrated experimentally, and thus had its own goals, desires, intentions, and favorite foods and TV shows--even showing the good sense of turning off the TV and leaving the room (Joseph, 1988b). NEUROPLASTICITY & EARLY ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES There is evidence that the late term fetus displays what could be construed as "mental activity" (see chapter 23). Much of this activity is mediated by the brainstem (Joseph, 1999) which even at birth is still somewhat immature as is the forebrain which is in fact exceedingly immature, displaying almost no metabolic or electrophysiological activity (see chapters 24, 25). Indeed, the normal pattern of maturational development--as is evident behaviorally and as based on myelination-- is that the brainstem and cerebellum begin to develop in advance of the forebrain, which in turn matures in a rostral arc, i.e. diencephalon, limbic system, striatum, neocortex (Barkovich et al., 1988; Brody et al., 1987; Gibson, 1991; Harbord, et al., 1990; Holland, et al., 1986; Lee et al., 1986). And these maturational events continue well into late childhood, adolescence and adulthood (e.g., Pfefferebaum, et al., 1994; Jernigan, et al., 1991; Kinney et al., 1988). However, as neurons are initially established in excess, over the course of development, cortical gray matter volume decreases (Pfefferebaum, et al., 1994) as neurons and excessive or insufficiently activated dendrites and synaptic connections are eliminated. It is through synaptic "pruning" coupled with experiential activation of developing neural circuits, that personality and cognitive and emotional functioning come to be molded and sculpted. The brain and the mind are exceedingly plastic, and are influenced and shaped throughout life by experience or lack thereof (Joseph, 1979, 1998b, 1999b,d; Joseph & Casagrande, 1978, 1980; Joseph & Gallagher, 1980). For example, in response to new learning, neural pathways develop long term potentiation or depression and may sprout new dendritic spines (Enbert & Bonhoeffer, 1999; Xu et al., 1998). Dendritic spines may literally bloom in a matter of seconds. If denied sensory input, such as due to a massive lesion, intact structures can undergo significant structural and functional reorganization (Florence et al., 1998; Jones & Pons, 1998; Niimura et al., 1999) and dendritic spines belonging to specific synapses may disappear--along with the synapse. Indeed, it is well established that early environmental influences exert significant organizing effects on neural growth throughout the neocortex, diencephalon and limbic system (Casagrande & Joseph, 1978, 1980; Joseph, 1998b, 1999a,d), determining neocortical thickness, the density, size, shape and growth of dendrites and synapses, and the die off and drop out rate of glia, neurons, and axons (Diamond, 1991; Greenough & Black, 1992; Siegel et al., 1993). An enriched rearing environment can increase neural growth and giver rise to millions if not billions of additional synapses throughout the brain and neocortex and increase a thousand fold the number of synapses per axon (Greenough & Black, 1992; Greer, Diamond, & Tang, 1982). However, if sufficient normal stimulation is not provided, or if exposed to an abnormal, abusive, or neglectful environment, developing neurons and dendrites will establish or maintain aberrant, abnormal interconnections, or whither, die, and drop out at an accelerated rate (Joseph, 1998b, 1999b,d) as demonstrated in primates (Casagrande & Joseph, 1978, 1980), and other species (Dimond, 1991; Greenough & Black, 1993; Siegel et al., 1993). Deprived and abusive conditions can significantly effect learning, memory, curiosity, inhibitory control, and emotional and perceptual functioning. Indeed, the above assertions regarding learning, memory, and perceptual functioning were experimentally demonstrated over 20 years ago (Casagrande & Joseph, 1978, 1980; Joseph, 1979; Joseph & Casagrande, 1978, 1980; Joseph & Gallagher 1980; Joseph et al., 1978). For example, in a series of over 8 experiments with almost 200 animals, it was found that rats which were reared in a deprived vs enriched environment, became hyperactive and failed to habituate to repeated exposures to novel stimuli. Deprived animals demonstrated abnormal perseverative behaviors, had difficulty suppressing a learned response when it was subsequently punished and failed to suppress behaviors that led to punishment and which simply required that they remain still. They also demonstrated significantly retarded learning ability across a variety of tests, including maze learning as well as long-term memory deficits. For example, although they had been allowed additional learning trials and were forced to perform the task until they finally demonstrated an errorless performance, when tested days and weeks later, it was immediately evident that they had forgotten almost all that they had learned, whereas enriched animals demonstrated significant memory retention. Human children reared in abusive and neglectful homes display almost similar deficits (see chapter 28). Children and infants require considerable social emotional maternal stimulation and physical contact. Even those who are held and breast fed display superior neurological and cognitive capabilities as compared to those who are given a bottle or formula and allowed to lie alone in their beds. These latter children are twice as likely to develop neurological abnormalities and cognitive-motor disturbances (Lanting et al., 1995); which, in part, however, may be due to greater nutritional benefit of mother's milk vs formula. Those who are actually abused and actively neglected tend to be profoundly effected and develop severe learning, memory, perceptual and emotional disturbances which in turn appear to be due to neurological injury and cell death and atrophy as well as the development of abnormal neural interconnections--as demonstrated in primates (e.g. Casagrande & Joseph, 1978, 1980; Harlow & Harlow, 1965a,b). Even if provided proper nutrition, they may die if denied sufficient social emotional contact. These deficits are also due to the deleterious effects of stress hormones, such as cortisol on pyramidal neurons, particularly those within the hippocampus, amygdala, and neocortex (Joseph, 1998b, 1999b,d). Neglect and abuse is stressful, and stress can injure the brain (Lupien & McEwen, 1997; Sapolsky, 1996), such that not only learning and memory, but all aspects of social emotional functioning can become abnormal, including maternal behavior. [-INSERT FIGURE 33 ABOUT HERE-] Fortunately, and as demonstrated with primates (Casagrande & Joseph, 1978, 1980; Joseph & Casagrande, 1978, 1980), some of these neurological and perceptual deficits can be partially alleviated and reversed if provided sufficient stimulation later in life. Indeed, as discovered by Joseph in a series of experiments performed between 1989 and 1994 (Joseph, 1998c,d,e) adult neurons can be induced to divide (and regenerate)--discoveries that have recently been confirmed by others. Specifically, in a recent article printed in Nature Medicine, by Gage et al., it was reported that undeveloped primitive nerve cells in the hippocampus of patients in their 50's, 60's and 70's, were dividing and continuing to divide thus producing new mature neurons. This study was conducted post morten and was based on findings from a chemical tracer that had been injected into their hippocampus before death, so as to determine rates of deterioration. Even vigorous physical exercise can promote neural growth and development. ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES AND ADULT NEUROPLASTICITY The brain of an adult is in fact exceedingly plastic and is capable of undergoing tremendous functional reorganization (Feldman et al. 1992; Jenkins, et al. 1990; Juliono et al. 1994; Ramachandran 1993; Strauss et al. 1992; Weiller et al. 1993). As noted, a somatosensory map of the body is maintained within the parietal lobe, and in humans and primates, more cortical space is devoted to the hands than the elbow, wrist, or forearm (chapter 20). Because of the sensory importance of the hand, if a single finger is amputated, the remaining fingers will increase their neocortical representation and will take over the temporarily vacated neocortical space (Jenkins, et al. 1990; Juliano et al. 1994). As described by Jenkins et al. (1990, p. 575), "representations of adjacent digits and palmar surfaces expanded topographically to occupy most or all of the cortical territories formerly representing the amputed digit. There were several fold increases in the cortical magnification (cortical area/skin surface area) of adjacent digits." Presumably, the expansion of representation is due to the attractive influence unoccupied dendrites exert on adjacent neurons and their axons. However, if the tissue subserving hand sensation is destroyed, because the hand is still intact, neurons surrounding the lesion become subject to innervation by those intact (hand-) axons which have been disconnected. As described by Jenkins et al. (1990, p. 579), "skin surfaces formerly represented in the cortical zone of the lesion came to be represented in entirety in the cortex surrounding the lesion." Presumably those axons which are still intact (though cut off from their terminal substrate do to tissue destruction) will search out and compete for dendrites that are already occupied, such that a axonal-dendritic battle for functional (living) space ensues. Hand-axons thus take over non-hand neurons. If a hand or arm is amputated, patients may develop a phantom limb. However, in cases where the entire hand is severed such that all "hand" and "finger" neurons are completely deinnervated, adjacent neuronal tissues that subserve completely different regions of the body will generate additional dendrites or even axons which innervate these vacant neural tissues. Therefore, if the hand is severed, neurons which represent the face begin to expand and take over those adjacent sites no longer receiving "hand" input (Pons et al. 1991). And if the face is subsequently stimulated, patients may experience highly localized sensations which are attributed to a phantom hand and fingers (Ramachandran 1993); hand neurons now subserve facial stimulation which is referred to the phantom hand. That phantom hand and finger sensation is not completely overridden and extinguished may well be due to the maintenance of an indelible memory of the body image, including the hand and fingers, by parietal neurons (see chapter 20). Indeed, the hand is exceedingly important, particularly in regard to cognitive development and those aspects of mind which make us unique human. As detailed in chapter 11, it is through the hand that infants first learn about the world, by touching, manipulating, pointing, counting, and so on. THE NEUROANATOMY OF MIND In summary, the human mind and brain are functionally lateralized, sexually differentiated, and hierarchically, vertically, and horizontally organized, and are significantly shaped and effected by experience. Considered broadly, it can be said that the most unconscious and reflexive aspects of the "unconscious" mind are associated with the brainstem. The diencephalon, which is immediately anterior and adjacent to the brainstem, is associated with a vague sensory affective unconscious, such that pre-conscious cognitive-sensory processing (thalamus) and reflexive emotional processing (hypothalamus) takes place in this region--information which may be relayed to the neocortex as well as to the limbic system. The limbic system, which is anterior to the diencephalon, and is both dorsally and ventrally situated, is capable of exceedingly complex and sophisticated mental activity and can process, analyze, and learn and remember complex cognitive, linguistic, visual-spatial, and affective material, as well as generate complex emotions ranging from love to hate. As will be detailed in chapters 13 and 15, the limbic system can also vocalize and it can think, and it can transfer this information to the overlying neocortex which it may impel to act on its desires and its fears. The neocortex is associated with the more rational and logical aspects of the mind. It is this neocortical shroud which envelops and coats the cerebrum with six to seven layers of gray matter, which cogitates, speaks in words and sentences, and can reason, rhyme, plan for the future, as well as ponder and analyze its own brain and mind. The mind, however, is also a continuum, and the human brain is a composite of interacting structures which are intimately interconnected and which perform a variety of unique and overlapping functions often in parallel. And yet, although these structures interact and often engage in parallel processing, they are also functionally specialized, with some areas, such as the brainstem and limbic system, often acting completely independently of the neocortex or what is classically referred to as the conscious mind. THE ORIGIN OF LIFE The brain is a living museum, a temple of the mind that houses and maintains not only one's desires, thoughts, feelings, hopes, dreams, and personal memories, but those shared genetic memories which have provided the foundation and instructions for neurological evolution, development, and conscious activity. It is these genetic instructions, engraved in each and every DNA macromolecule, including those found in the skin and bones, which account for the neurological organization that characterize the function and development of the vertebrate brain, be it human, reptile, or even cartilaginous fish. Although the environment exerts profound organizing and activational influences on gene selection and behavior, and although species differences abound, it could be argued that the brain, and thus the temple of the mind, might best be understood from a genetic perspective. Indeed, it is DNA, those maco-molecules of the mind, which maintain the instructions necessary for the creation of a single cell, a complex brain, a complete Homo sapiens sapiens, and the mind. Continuing along this reductionist road and to best understand the origin of mind, it is reasonable to inquire as to the origin and evolution of those nucleotide sequence segments which contain the instructions for creating and maintaining the machinery of the mind. As to these putative origins, we are presented with at least three theoretical possibilities which may be broadly considered as creation science, spontaneous generation ("the organic soup"), and extra-terrestrial astro-biological contamination and infection. In brief, modern creation scientists attribute the creation of Earth and all earthly life to "the spirit of god" and claim that this "spirit" is eternal. God created the planet Earth and molded woman and man in the image of God. By contrast, the theory of spontaneous generation (also referred to as "biogenesis") rests upon the notion that at first there was absolutely nothing, except, perhaps, pure energy. Out of nothing, out of this pure energy (whose source is unknown) the universe was formed following a massive explosion, the so called "big bang." It is this explosion which gave rise to stars, planets, galaxies, and complex organic molecules which fell to earth thereby creating an "organic soup" from which a single living entity emerged purely by chance and which then randomly evolved. It is this latter theory, and versions thereof, which is embraced by most mainstream Western-educated scientists and which Darwinian and neo-Darwinian evolutionary theory is partly based. It is noteworthy, however, that if life emerged as dictated by creation scientists, or if life is merely the result of the random mixing of molecules that formed an organic soup, then it would be reasonable to assume that similar events took place on other planets billions of years ago (Joseph, 1997). If life formed on other worlds, and given that cosmic collisions are commonplace, not only between planets but between entire galaxies, it would then seem reasonable to assume that these seeds of life may well have been dispersed throughout the cosmos billions of years before the Earth became a twinkle in God's eye (Joseph, 1997). In fact, it has recently been determined that our very own Milky Way galaxy is being invaded by a small galaxy consisting of a bundle of about ten million stars. This invading galaxy appears to be in an orbit that peridically takes it through the center of the Milky Way. Hence, debris is exchanged not only between planets, but entire galaxies. [-INSERT FIGURE 34 ABOUT HERE-] In fact, the Milk Way is part of a dozen other galaxies that together make up what astronomers refer to as "The Local Group." Over the last 10 billion years the Milky Way Galaxy has probably repeatedly interchanged stars and galactic material following innumerable cosmic collisions. Undoubtedly these collisions resulted in the destructive of entire planets and the jettisoning planetary debris, some of which may have eventually fallen to Earth. The earth is an island, swirling in an ocean of space, and debris has been washing to shore since the creation--debris which may well have contained not only the seeds of life, but the genetic instructions for the creation and "evolutionary metamorphosis" of all life, including the likes of woman and man (Joseph, 1997). DARWIN, "THE MYTH OF THE BIG BANG" AND THE "MYTH OF THE ORGANIC SOUP" More than a century ago, Charles Darwin (1887) wrote a letter to a friend where he speculated as to the origins of life and the first living organisms, and in so doing, reintroduced to 19th century science what would become the myth of the organic soup: "...if (and oh what a big if) we could conceive in some warm little pond, with all sorts of ammonia and phosphoric salts, light, heat, electricity, etc., present, that a protein compound was chemically formed ready to undergo still more complex changes...." Chemical compounds, Darwin proposed, that would have had the chance to accumulate, eventually becoming a living entity as there were no other forms of life to compete with it, or eat it up. Darwin also explained that the reason life doesn't continue to emerge from non-life, is because of the presence of modern day living things. "At the present day such matter would be instantly devoured or absorbed, which would not have been the case before living creatures were formed." Essentially, Darwin was proposing that life had emerged from non-life. Moreover, although, in this letter he acquiesced to the possibility that life could emerge more than once from non-life, his theory of evolution was in fact based on the premise that life had emerged only once; that all life has descended from a single living molecule. Hence, according to Darwin's theory, including modern-day neo-Darwinistic theory, all the branches and twigs of the tree of life trace their roots to a single seed-- a notion that could best be described as the "single seed" hypothesis. The "single seed" theory is widely embraced and accepted without question by most (but not all) academics and scientists. In fact this was the official position of the 1986 "Eighth Conference on the Origins of Life" held at Berkeley, for they issued a press release which reflected the consensus view that "all life on Earth, from bacteria to sequoia trees to humans, evolved from a single ancestral cell." Why a single seed? The reason is elementary: life must have emerged only once since all living entities are comprised of cells and DNA, and since, regardless of species, the structure of DNA is identical. If life had emerged more than once no Earth, then there would be no "universal genetic code" but innumerable genetic codes, with some life forms possibly having no genes whatsoever. Darwin's theory and neo-Darwinian evolutionary theory is also compatible with and supported by the mainstream scientific view as to the origin of the Universe; i.e., "The Big Bang." The theory of "The Big Bang" in turn provides a theortical framework that could explain the origin of those complex molecules that fell to earth, only to be cooked and randomly jumbled together in some organic soup, or perhaps swallowed and then spewed out of some undersea volcano in the form of a living, self-replicating molecule (de Duve, 1995; Gesteland, 1993; Holm, 1992; Woodward, et al., 1998). THE BIG BANG: MOLECULAR CLOUDS AND GALAXY AND PLANETARY FORMATION Essentially, the theory of "The Big Bang" rests upon the notion that at first there was absolutely nothing. Nothing! Not even space! Though some theorists admit to the possibility that at first there was pure energy--the source and nature of which is unknown. And then, inexplicably, this nothingness began to heat up and exploded, and out of nothing there was suddenly stuff. Or, another way of putting it: nothing happened. And, out of nothing flowed space, time, elementary particles, then protons, neutrons, electrons... the Universe and finally those molecules which would some day fall to earth. And, just as nothing gave rise to everything, non-life would give rise to all life. [-INSERT FIGURES 35 & 36 ABOUT HERE-] More specifically, it is supposed that within one trillionth of a second after the big bang--an explosion that was tens of billions of degrees hot--that both matter and anti-matter were created. In some scenarios, this resulted in an anti-matter universe, and a universe consisting of matter. In yet another scenario, since whenever matter and anti-matter have contact, they instantly annihilate one another in flashes of pure energy, there was a slight imbalance such that there was slightly more matter than anti-matter. Hence, within the one trillionth of a second after the big bang and after almost all matter and anti-matter were destroyed--thus creating the cosmic microwave background radiation that permeates the universe--the fragmentary remainder of matter gave rise to this universe. Considered broadly and generally, following the big bang and the creation of molecules from nothingness, as well as the creation of space--for initially, as there was nothing, there was no space (at least according to the theory of the big bang)-- some of the remaining molecules of matter froze and/or combined in space, perhaps in association with the hydrogen and helium that was also created by the big bang. Once they combined, these formed complex organic molecules, some of which may have even developed lipid membranes (Woodward, et al., 1998). Presumably, ten billion years later, these complex molecules eventually seeded the Earth. It is noteworthy, however, that these latter events could have also occurred without the necessity of a "big bang" as the creation of complex organic molecules in space appear to be ongoing phenomenon. More specifically, it is supposed, that following the creation of stars, planets, and galaxies there were repeated cosmic collisions and supernova which dispersed all manner of debris into interstellar space--events which again do no require a "big bang." The nature of this ejecta, however, differed and continues to differ depending on the type of stellar nucleosynthesis that created it, and those events which led to its dispersal; e.g., planetary collisions, supernova, planetary nebulae etc. (Scott et al., 1998; Woodward, et al., 1998). As is now well known, many different types of stellar debris, including those produced by planetary nebulae (dying stars) contains hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and often sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorus (Williams, 1998). However, since molecules of this sort may be quickly destroyed by interstellar shock waves, ultraviolet photolysis, and varporization, it is also supposed that after the big bang, and/or following planetary collisions, and/or supernova, or planetary nebulae, etc., that these molecules coalesced thus forming dense protective molecular clouds which enabled them to survive the rigors of outerspace (Scott et al., 1998; Williams, 1998; Woodward, et al., 1998). In fact, it appears that these dense molecular clouds may have served (and continue to serve) as stellar nurseries, from which stars, planets, and galaxies were (and continue to be) formed. As the cloud collapses and the heavier central most elements fall together due to gravitational forces, and then combine together, they form stars and planets. [-INSERT FIGURES 37 & 38 ABOUT HERE-] These molecular clouds/planetary nurseries--which have been repeatedly identified in the wilds of space-- are believed to remain stable for millions if not hundreds of millions of years. In fact, in August of 1997, astronomers announced what they claimed to be an immense "planetary construction site" for new planets, just 450 million light years from Earth; i.e. a molecular cloud containing a dense, gas-rich rotating disc of material which is orbiting a young star, MWC480, less than a few million years old, in the constellation of Taurus. According to Dr. Anneila Sargent, Director of the Owens Valley Radio Observatory, "We are seeing for the first time a place where conditions are perfect for the formation of planets like Jupiter or Earth." Although the MWC480 disc makes up only a fraction of the molecular cloud, its outer edge is more than 30 billion miles across, which is 10 times the distance of the planet Pluto from the sun. As to the origins of the disk, presumably it is the result of the gravitational collapse of those interstellar molecular clouds which formed the star itself. Thus, as emphasized the creation of galaxies, stars, and planets does not require a big bang. In fact, recent evidence based on infrared photos provided by the Hubble telescope indicates that at the center of our Milky Way galaxy is a star that glows with the energy of 10 million suns and which was formed only 1 million to 3 million years ago. That is, within the center of our galaxy is a star and presumably a planet creating nucleus--which in turn may have been created by a collapsing molecular cloud, and which in turn may someday come to be ringed by planets. Planets appear to typically form from debris swirling around already established stars, and planets being formed in this fashion have been identified throughout this galaxy; i.e. huge disklike structures of dust ("protoplanetary disks") that appear to be forming solar systems around four sun-like stars, Vega, Formalhaut, Beta Pictoris, and GR4796A. In fact, NASA has announced that several rocky planets, about 10 million years old, may have already formed around at least two of these stars, Vega and Formalhaut. Huge planets have also been discovered around numerous other stars within the Milky Way, and in this galaxy alone there may well be over 100 billion planets--at least a few of which may be teaming with life. Moreover, dying stars also provide the material for the creation of new molecular clouds and thus the formation of new suns and planets, including perhaps the seeds of life. In December of 1997, for example, NASA released photos taken by the Hubble telescope which revealed dying stars that were in the process of blowing off their outer atmospheres and veils of luminous gas including clouds of helium, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon, at high speeds hundreds of billions of miles into the far reaches of space; i.e. so called "planetary nebulae." Thus it appears that old stars are recycled, recreating the molecular clouds which gave birth to them and which will give birth to new suns and planets. If there was no big bang, this process of recycling may well have been ongoing for all of eternity. [-INSERT FIGURE 39 ABOUT HERE-] MOLECULAR CLOUDS AND THE SEEDS OF LIFE Prior to the eventual collapse of molecular clouds, and the formation of new planets, suns, and galaxies, it is presumed that these cosmic clouds (and those which continue to orbit between and within the innumerable billions of galaxies within this universe) may have also served (and may continue to serve) as nuclear wombs that generate and give birth to the seeds of life. Specifically, since these clouds provide protection for the complex molecules they contain, and also absorb ultraviolent light and cosmic shock waves which in turn provides them heat and energy, these collective events are believed to engender the combination and creation of even more complex organic molecules (Scott et al., 1998; Woodward, et al., 1998). That is, within the womb of these molecular clouds, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorus are continually irradiated by ions, and are then combined thereby creating complex organic molecules, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), as well as carbon grains, oxides, and carbon monoxide--seeds of life. Although the above scenario is conjecture, as is well known, interstellar space is awash with carbon based organic molecules, whereas hydrogen, the stuff of life, is a major constituent of interestellar molecular clouds (Scott et al., 1998; Woodward, et al., 1998). Moreover, water, carbon dioxide, and methanol have been detected in comets. Given the above, it might be assumed that the galaxies and planets formed by the collapse of these clouds would also be awash with the organic elements necessary for the formation of life. However, this is not the case, as the extreme temperatures that are engendered during the collapse and star formation, destroy all complex organic molecules, with the possible exception of PAH's, microdiamonds, and aliphatic hydrocarbons (Woodward, et al., 1998). In other words, planets formed in this manner would be completely sterilized and would be dependent upon stellar debris in order to obtain the chemistry of life. The Organic Soup At present there appears to be a general consensus that the Milky Way galaxy, our solar system, and the Earth were created in accordance with the above collapsing cloud scenario. Moreover, according to this scenario, the Earth would have also been sterilized in the process of its creation. In fact, it would have been continually sterilized yet again by the immense heat generated during its initial 800 million years when it was incessantly bombarded by cosmic debris (Press & Siever, 1986). Thus the new Earth was sterile and completely devoid of the complex organic chemicals necessary for life. It is assumed by most mainstream evolutionary and astro-biologists, that complex organic molecules--but not living things--were encased in that debris which for 800 million years, fell to Earth. Once on Earth, and after the cessation of this bombardments, those complex organic molecules which survived began to collect together, perhaps as runoff from river estuaries, thus forming either a complex molecular "organic soup," or a random collection of residue and organic sludge that was swallowed by the ocean and later spewed from a deep-ocean thermal vent which gaver rise to life (Brandes, et al., 1998; Holme, 1992). As per the origin of life, although a variety of scenarios abound (e.g., DeDuve, 1995; Holme, 1992; Lamond & Gibson, 1990; Orgel 1994; Rebek, 1994), involving for example, involving crystals, clay particles, or ribozymes (e.g., Gesteland, 1993; Unrau & Bartel, 1998), in general it is assumed that once these molecules collected together (either as an organic soup or in a deep sea thermal vent), they were further subject to some electro-chemical, activating event, and thus became organized in a manner that would eventually give rise to life; i.e. a single celled organism--the only one of its kind. It is also believed that this single celled organism was somehow provided with DNA (deoxyribonuclei acid), RNA (ribonucleic acid), genetic instructions, cytoplasm, and a cellular membrane, and the capacity to extract energy and reproduce itself by producing RNA- or DNA-based duplicates. Every creature and living thing, therefore, owe their existence to these chance occurrences where a multitude of organic molecules from outer space were randomly mixed together (by chance) and not only sprang to life but survived and began to reproduce in just a few hundred million years on a planet that had recently melted and lacked most of the necessary organic ingredients, and which continued to be bombarded by stellar debris. It is important to stress, that according to the above scenarios, only one molecule achieved life, and that this was completely due to chance and random events. The continuation of these same random and chance events later gave rise to the random evolution of life on this planet, Random Chance Factors & Darwinian Evolution According to neo-Darwinian theory, the evolution of all past and current life, including those equipped with neurons and brains, evolved secondary to random chance, as well as due to mutations, and natural selection. According to neo-Darwinian theory, all modern day life forms can trace their ancestry to this single DNA molecule that was in turn fashioned when precursor molecules were randomly mixed and cooked together in a swirling organic broth boiling deep beneath the sea or at the edges of some primeval swamp. Again, although there are variations in the above theories which are admittedly outlined here only in the most general of terms, the emphasis of these theoreticians is decidedly on "random" and "chance" factors so as to rule out any notion or possibility of "purpose" or "design;" i.e. "patterns without plans." Indeed, "random" and "chance" factors, coupled with "natural selection" are the founding stones which provide the philosophical and "scientific" basis of modern-day mainstream neo-Darwinian evolutionary theory (e.g. Dawkins, 1987, 1989). A. R. Wallace, however, whose theory of "natural selection" and evolution was incorporated by (and is now misattributed to) Darwin, rejected the emphasis on "random" and "chance" factors, as he believed that the emergence and evolution of life, particularly as related to humans, was following a specific, purposeful organizational plan. That is, although creatures that were not "fit" were eliminated and weeded out by "natural selection" (a concept largely originated by Wallace), utlimately, he believed, this organizational plan (at least in regard to humans) was divine in origin, guided by the hand of God. In fact, as revealed in the final paragraph of his book, the Origin of Species, Darwin (1859) alluded to almost identical sentiments. "There is a grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been orginally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one." Darwin's tribute to a "Creator," to an almighty God, is not entirely surprising as he was trained in theology, and as the Creation Science theory of the origin and evolution of life (as depicted in the Hebrew version of Genesis) is almost identical to Darwin's view and what is now mainstream evolutionary science. Both camps believe that life emerged from the mud and muck of the earth and that simple and increasingly complex creatures, including fish, birds, and all manner of beast, emerged before the likes of woman and man. Darwin, however, did not believe in God, and as he later admitted, he added these final paragraphs only as a sop to those who did. Criticism of Darwinian & Big Bang Theories In its current formulation Creation Science has been repeatedly subject to utter ridicule, reviled as completely implausible and as based on superstitious nonsense. However, the theories of the big bang and the "organic soup" and Darwin's theory of evolution are also based on faith, and are in fact rather flawed, as they appear to be refuted by the scientific evidence. Darwinian Tautologies As will be detailed in chapter 4, Darwin's theory is a tautology; e.g., survivors survive, breeders breed, and those who are fit are naturally selected because they are fit, and they are fit because they are naturally selected. Darwin's theory can only predict from hindsight and in a backward direction, after the fact. Darwin's theory is also refuted by modern genetics. As detailed in chapters 3, 4, and 5, there is absolutely nothing random about the organization and expression of DNA or the evolution of life. Increasingly complex life has unfolded and DNA has been expressed in such an obvious step-wise, clock-like fashion, that informed scientists are now viewing "evolution" as regulated by a genetic, "molecular clock." These and other findings are completely contrary to Darwinian theory which holds that evolution is due to random and chance factors and that there is no evidence of progress. The Big Bang and Chaos The theory of the big bang is especially problematic as it rests upon the premise that at first there was nothing and then there was an explosion and then there was stuff. Some theorists have recognized this position is rather untenable, and have modified the theory of the "big bang" by positing the initial existence of pure energy. Of course, the pre-existence of "energy" also seems to refute the central tenant of the "big bang" which is at first there was nothing. Nevertheless, according to this version of the big bang theory, this pure energy became increasingly chaotic and for some reason exploded, thereby giving rise to an orderly expanding and uniform universe, where at first there was nothing but chaos. However, the notion of order emerging from chaos, including even the condensing and creation of vast interstellar clouds, is actually a very old idea that was in fact penned by the Sumerians over 6000 years ago. Moreover, the notion of "pure energy" has been likened by some Creation scientists as being identical to the "spirit of God". Although there is obvious evidence for "energy" and interstellar clouds that give birth to stars, planets and galaxies, the theory of the "big bang" is not supported by the evidence and in fact is refuted by the fact that the "uniformity" that is required in the distribution of matter, and the supposed '3 degree background radiation that is supposed to exist uniformly in all directions of the universe (as predicted and required by this big explosion), is not uniform. Rather, there are entire walls of galaxies spread at irregular intervals (Cohen et al., 1996), with the "older" and more distant galaxies clustered together rather than spread apart (Glanz, 1996). The background radiation is also characterized by "density fluctuations" and other deviations which indicate the universe is not behaving in a fashion that would be expected from an inflationary explosion (Ferreira et al., 1998). According to one team of scientists (reviewed in Glanz, 1996) there are "clumpy structures as far as they could see, far enough to make theorists uncomfortable." [-INSERT FIGURE 40 ABOUT HERE-] Moreover, it has been repeatedly reported that a mysterious kind of antigravity energy, a "repulsive force permeates the universe, accelerating its expansion and sweeping distant objects unexpectedly far away" (reviewed in Glanz, 1998). In fact, there are entire rivers of galaxies flowing in directions that would not be likely if due to a big bang (e.g. Lauer & Postman, cited by and reviewed in Flamsteed 1995). Even more "troubling" are findings based on the analysis of radio waves from 160 distant galaxies which indicates that radio waves move in relation to an axis of orientation running through space. According to Dr. Borge Nodland of the Unversity of Rochester, and Dr. Joun Ralston of the University of Kansas, this axis of orientation differs in different regions of space and determines how light travels and the speed and direction at which it travels in different regions of space. That is, these radiations rotate, like a corkscrew as they move through space, and undergo a complete rotation every billion miles. Moreover, this axis is different in different regions of space; running one way, for example, toward the constellation Aquila and another way toward the constellation Sextans (Nodland & Ralston, 1997). What this means, according to Dr. Nodland, "is that not all space is equal" and that "light travels at different speeds" in different regions of the universe--findings which are completely contrary to the uniformity predicted by the theory of the big bang. Moreover, because light changes speed, this also makes it impossible to determine the distance or age of distant stars, based on the speed of light. The Big Bang, Relativity, and the Paradox of the Time Machine The theory of the big bang, and in fact all current estimates as to the age of the universe, are also refuted by and fall prey to "the paradox of the time machine." Moreover, this theory including estimates as to the age of the universe, are dependent upon the false assumption that light always travels at the same speed and in a straight line. As noted above, that assumption is false (Nodland & Ralston, 1997). In fact, light not only travels at different speeds in different regions of the universe, but at different speeds in this solar system and above the planet Earth--which is also inconsistent with the big bang requirement of uniformity. Specifically, it was discovered and reported by Unran Inan (a professor at Stanford) at the Annual Meeting of the American Geophysical Union, in September of 1996, that flickering lights and glowing rings that are commonly detected high above thunderstorms, expand faster than the speed of light. This phenomenon is set in motion by a bolt of lightning striking the ground which causes electromagnetic pulses to race upward and to expand at an exceedingly rapid rate, thus creating an upward expanding bubble-like glowing ring which strikes the ionosphere and which then continues to expand faster than the speed of light. Hence, not only is the speed of light not a constant, but the speed of light is not a limiting factor in speed of movement. The theory of the big bang and all notions as to the age of the universe are also based on the false and arrogant assumption that we are able to detect the most distant galaxies and the oldest galaxies the likes of which may be so distant, or which ceased to exist so long ago, that they simply cannot be detected by those instruments currently available. Currently, via the assistance of the Hubble telescope, astronomers have been able to detect glaxies that they believe to be a little over 12 billion light years distant (though others claims 14 billion or even 18 billion)--findings which assume uniformity in the speed of light. Although Esther Hu who detected this distant galaxy has also reported that "we've already got some candidate objects that are even further away," the light from the more distant and aged stars may have winked out of existence so long ago that they will never be detected. As to the "the paradox of the time machine," consider: If you were to step into a time machine and go back 1000 years in time, you would not reappear on the exact same spot on Earth 1000 years ago, but in outer space as the Earth, our solar system, and this galaxy are in motion and were not in this spot 1000 years ago. Likewise, those distant stars whose 12 billion year old light are just now arriving on Earth, reflect not where these stars are now, but where they were 12 billion years ago and only from the vantage point of where the Earth is now--and where the Earth is now is not ground zero for the supposed big bang. That is, these stars were 12 billion light years distant from this specific spot in the Universe 12 billion years ago and not 12 billion light years distant from the supposed big bang. As this particular spot is not ground zero, that distance means absolutely nothing except that 12 billion years ago these stars were 12 billion light years away from this spot. If we chose a spot 12 billion light years in the opposite direction and make our age estimates from this new location, then these stars suddenly become 24 billion years in age, and so on. Distance and thus age estimates based on distance and the location of an observer, are entirely relative and become meaningful only if we can identify a ground zero or starting point and this information simply does not exist. Moreover, these stars have had an additional 12 billion years to move further away from the spot they were in 12 billion years ago. They may have moved in a different direction all together, as not just planets, but solar system, and entire galaxies are in orbit. Our solar system, for example, takes about 126 million years to make a complete orbit of the Milky Way--w